⚫ French: which is considered as the most prestigious language during 13th century, has enormous impact on English. It is interesting that French words were introduced to denote the meat from certain animals, whereas the names of the animals remained English: pork from pigs, mutton from sheep. The influence has also made itself noticeable in certain grammatical and the placement of stress in French-based words: canal, hotel, antique

⚫ Latin: pervasive influence on English. Latin influence made itself noticeable in many

spheres. Firstly, all the words pertaining to the Church were introduced: candle, school,

master, grammatical. Secondly, name of articles of clothing & household utensils &

foods: sock, sack, cap. Thirdly, new names for tree & plants & herbs: pine, lily, fennel.

The Latin element has been integrated into the English system-word formation

Scandinavian: Although not as massive as that of Latin or French, the Scandinavian influence has been substantial, affected many everyday words. The very pronunciation of the k's and g's in the following words, fricatives, is a sign of Scandinavian origin: sky. book, whisk, skirt.

Celtic: Contacts with the indigenous Celtic population have not resulted in many borrowings in English. Such evidence as there is survives chiefly in place names: river names such as Thames, Avon and Wye, and place-name elements such as crag, steep and rugged rock and cumb, deep valley. Admittedly, there are also Celtic borrowings of another type in English now, such as whisky, the water of life and galore, lots of