The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize homicide detectives with the availability of certain technical and psychological tools that can be utilized in professional investigations. Practically speaking, these techniques may be limited to specific cases. However, they are viable adjuncts to the investigation and may provide additional facts, information, and identification of suspects. In order to acquaint detectives with these investigative methodologies, I have provided information, case histories, and recommendations for the following techniques:

Bite-mark identification

Hypnosis

Latent prints on human skin

Polygraph

Psycholinguistics

Psychics

Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP)

Homicide involving the theft of a fetus

Stalkers

VICAP, statewide and regional information systems

Bite-Mark Identification

The purpose of this section is to acquaint investigators with practical information and procedures which can be employed in the investigation of homicides involving bite-mark evidence. Bite marks are usually found in cases involving extremely emotional and violent episodes such as child abuse, felonious assault, sexual assault, and sex-related homicides. According to forensic odontologist, Dr. Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., "In order for investigators to utilize this evidence, they must first be able to recognize the existence of this type of wound and then be able to properly collect this evidence from the bite mark area" (personal communication). (Note: a bite mark will have a C-shaped or ovoid appearance with individual marks

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showing the presence of teeth. I have included various photos of bite-marks here to assist investigators in making this observation.)

Forensic odontology, which is the use of dentistry in legal matters, has become a highly important and technically complex area because a medicolegal investigation of bite-mark evidence has proved to be successful in many noteworthy cases. One of the more prominent cases which helped forensic odontology to receive recognition and acclaim was the Theodore Bundy case in Florida. Bundy, who has since been executed by the State of Florida, was convicted for murder. The prosecution used forensic dentistry to link Bundy to the bite marks he had inflicted on his victims during a sexual rampage and murder at the Chi Omega Sorority dorm. The forensic odontologist testified with reasonable medical and dental certainty at the trial that the defendant, Ted Bundy, had inflicted the bite marks.

The homicide detective will obviously need the expertise of a forensic odontologist to interpret this type of evidence. Here, we will look at certain basic steps which investigators must employ at the scene in order to assist the odontologist in his evaluations.

The Bite Mark

Practically speaking, the bite mark should be viewed as an additional piece of evidence which may be utilized to identify a suspect. The teeth are actually used by people as "tools," and in the simplest terms, tooth marks are tool marks. It has been well documented that owing to such factors as size, shape, wear, rotations, restorations, fillings, loss of certain teeth, and accidental characteristics such as breakage and injury, no two sets of teeth are exactly alike. The relative positions of the teeth, their width, and the distance between them, together with ridges on the edges of the teeth and grooves on the back or front, vary for different individuals. These factors provide the forensic odontologist with specific and characteristic information about the person who has inflicted the bite mark and can be used to include or exclude a suspect.

Generally, tooth marks come from the front teeth in the upper and lower jaws. The type of impression varies with the age of the individual. For example, children and young people have ridges on the lower edges of their front teeth, and persons over 20 years of age generally have front teeth which are smoother.

Bite mark identification is not limited to skin. Teeth leave impressions or scraping marks in the form of bite marks in chewing gum, cheese, fruit, chocolate, Styrofoam cups, cardboard, and other similar materials. The discovery of a piece of discarded chewing gum at the scene of a homicide should certainly be considered a significant find. Its value is not only in its distinctive bite-mark impressions, but also in its ability to yield additional information through a serological test to determine the blood grouping as well as DNA analysis of the suspect who chewed the gum.

Forensic odontologists examine the bite marks found on the skin of a victim or suspect. The musculature of the lips, tongue, and cheeks and the mental state

Figure 20.2 BITE MARK ON CHILD. Child abuse case. This 3-year-old child has bite marks showing a maxillary mark twice. The mother had inflicted the bite mark on the child. (Courtesy of Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., forensic odontologist.)

Figure 20.3 BITE MARKS FROM A SADISTIC BREAST ASSAULT. Multiple bite marks were inflicted upon the breast of the victim, who survived an attack by a serial killer. (Courtesy of Lt. Frank P. Del Prete, Bergen County, New Jersey, Prosecutor's Office.)

Figure 20.4 FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPH. Photograph of bite-mark wound with ruler in place to show actual size. (Courtesy of Dr. Arthur D. Goldman, forensic odontologist.) of the biter seem to play a role in the infliction of the tooth-mark pattern on the skin. The skin contributes to the bite mark in that it is elastic, yielding, and variable from body area to body area and from body to body. Most bite marks are found in the following types of homicides: (1) the homicide victim involved in sexual activity around the time of death and (2) the battered-child homicide victim. Sexually oriented homicides can be homosexual or heterosexual and may involve voluntary sexual activity or forcible attack. Child victims may be battered children or children murdered by other children in a single homicide assault.

Collection of Bite-Mark Evidence at the Scene

The proper handling of bite-mark evidence begins at the scene of the crime, where the homicide investigator must initiate procedures to ensure that it is not destroyed or lost. The best course of action is to secure photographs of the bite-mark wounds. If the material is other than skin, consideration must be given to casting the object. Bite marks are usually found in materials which cannot be kept for long periods of time; once the materials have dried up or decomposed, the bite mark's appearance will change drastically and be of no value to the odontologist. It is therefore imperative to obtain photographs or casts of the bite mark before the material begins to change. Even if an object is to be cast, the bite mark should first be photographed in case the casting goes wrong.

These first photographs are usually taken by the police photographer at the scene, followed by medical examiner photographs taken at autopsy. I recommend that the investigator take photos of any pattern of injury he or she observes on the body while at the scene, giving special attention to any ovoid-shaped wounds or

Figure 20.5 BITE MARK. (Courtesy of Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., forensic odontologist.)

Figure 20.6 SUSPECT'S TEETH. (Courtesy of Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., forensic odontologist.)

Figure 20.7 MONTH-OLD BITE MARK. The deceased was attacked during a homosexual assault. This is a month-old bite mark. Several bite marks of different ages were on the victim. Attacks ranged over a 6-month period of time, which was verified by the various stages of healing. (Courtesy of Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., forensic odontologist.)

Figure 20.8 RULER. Example of the type of ruler that should be used to photograph wound structures.

marks, which are less than 2 inches in diameter. According to Dr. Dugan, there are two rules to remember:

1. Do not touch a suspected bite mark.

2. Get photographs as quickly as possible with a measuring device present, preferably with an American Board of Forensic Odontologists (ABFO) ruler.

It is very possible that these initial photographs may be the best and only opportunity to secure good quality photos of your evidence. Many good bite marks have been lost due to mishandling by investigators, emergency personnel, and autopsy technicians. The following procedures at the crime scene are recommended.

Photographs of the Bite-Mark Wound

1. The best type of camera to use is the Polaroid® Spectra Close-Up kit. Likewise, the CU-5 1 × 1 fingerprint camera produced by Polaroid is excellent for photographing bite marks because these cameras provide a 1 × 1 exposure or life-size photo of the wound.

2. Use a rule of measure in the photo to document size. The rule used should not be white in color because white is not conducive to enhancement. The best ruler to use is the ABFO.

3. Use oblique lighting to enhance the bite mark.

4. Provide for an anatomical landmark in the photo.

Figure 20.9 SUBCUTANEOUS VIEW OF BITE MARK TISSUE REFLECTED. (Courtesy of

Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., forensic odontologist.)

5. Take photos in black-and-white and in color.

6. Take an overall photo and a close-up of each wound.

7. Do not discard any "bad" shots; save all negatives and photos. They are evidence.

Saliva Washings

1. Take saliva washings of the bite-mark area for DNA analysis, blood grouping, and/or serological examination.

2. Washing should be done with distilled water and 100% cotton. Start at the periphery and work inward; use a separate swab for each bite mark. (If no distilled water is available, use tap water, but take a control sample for examination.)

3. Air dry each swab.

4. Place each swab in a separate container, preferably a sterile test tube.

5. Take a saliva swab from the victim for control.

6. Take a controlled swab from an area of the body other than the bite mark.

7. Label each sample; keep items separate.

Remember: Always keep track of the chain of custody.

Interpretation of the Bite-Mark Evidence

The interpretation of the bite mark requires the forensic odontologist to consider at least four factors:

1. The teeth of the biter

2. Distortion

3. The mental state of the biter at the time the bite was inflicted

4. The portion of the body upon which the bite was inflicted

Bite marks have been found almost everywhere on the body. However, certain patterns are most prominent in particular kinds of cases. For example, homosexual cases often involve bite marks of the back, arms, shoulders, axillae (armpits, face, penis, and scrotum of the victim). Heterosexual cases usually involve the breasts and thighs. Battered children most often have randomly placed bite marks on the cheeks, back, and sides. However, bite marks on battered children have also been found on the abdomen, scrotum, and buttocks. In child cases, the biting seems to be done in a rapid, random, and enraged manner, leaving tissue laceration, diffuse areas, and poor detail, as opposed to sexually associated bite marks, which are usually inflicted in a slow and sadistic manner and result in excellent detail.

Factors such as size and shape are helpful in establishing whether the bite mark was inflicted by a human being or an animal. If the bite mark is human, the time at which it was inflicted (antemortem or postmortem), tissue reaction of the surrounding area, and position of the body when found are all taken into consideration by the odontologist.

Examination of the Bite Mark

The examination of the bite mark by a forensic odontologist can generally provide the investigator with sufficient information to rapidly include or exclude a suspect in a particular investigation. For instance, in a case involving a battered child, only a limited number of persons would have the opportunity to bite and murder the child. The suspect in such cases might include one or two adults (the mother and/or father) and siblings. On the basis of the size of the arch, the forensic odontologist can usually determine whether the attacker was an adult or a child. In addition, there may be enough individual characteristics (wear, missing teeth, dental restorations, rotations, arch form, etc.) to exclude all but the perpetrator of the bite. The forensic examination includes the following procedures:

1. Saliva washings are made of the area for DNA and blood groupings (using 100% cotton dampened in distilled water).

2. Photographs of the bite mark are taken:

a. 1 × 1 camera fingerprint type model

b. Black-and-white and color photographs

c. Rule of measure

d. Anatomical landmark

3. Dental casts of possible suspects are examined. Models of the teeth of all suspects, which will subsequently be used for comparisons, are taken only by informed consent or by court order. The models are made by the forensic

Figure 20.10 DOG ATTACK CASE. The body of a 9-year-old child attacked by a pack of Rottweillers and Doberman pinchers. The parents had eight dogs and their neighbors had nine dogs. The question as to which dogs had inflicted the bites was attempted. However, the mauling and mutilation precluded the ability to determine exactly which dogs had done the biting. Models were taken from all dogs involved for comparison. It was determined that approximately nine of the dogs had actually bitten into the child. All of the dogs were put to sleep. There were various lawsuits and criminal charges. (Courtesy of Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., forensic odontologist.) odontologist or another licensed dentist. This varies from case to case and from court order to court order. All models, however, are made according to accepted dental standards and labeled for evidentiary purposes.

4. Comparisons are made of the life-size photographs of the bite marks with bite marks made in wax by the suspect or by models of the suspect's teeth. An excellent computer program is now used to remove photographic distortion and compare the bite mark and the suspect's dentition.

5. A report is prepared indicating whether the bite marks are or are not consistent with the teeth of the suspect.

Summary

The application of forensic odontology to bite-mark identification and matching DNA as well as serological groups with saliva washings of the suspected bite mark are two viable investigative techniques which can provide the investigator with the necessary evidence to present a case for prosecution.

Bite-mark identification has been recognized by the superior courts of several jurisdictions in noteworthy homicide trials. It is my opinion that this excellent investigative technique should be utilized in every case of homicide involving bite marks. Even in cases that have a confession or other evidence linking the suspect to the crime, bite-mark evidence should still be obtained and submitted to the forensic odontologist. There is no such thing as "enough evidence" in homicide prosecution. Remember the O.J. Simpson case?

Remember: Bite-mark identification represents individual characteristic evidence, which can positively identify a suspect.

Hypnosis

The purpose of this section is to acquaint the homicide detective with the utilization of hypnosis in murder investigations.* In addition, there is a discussion of psychodynamics, the science pertaining to motives and other causative factors in mental life, and how these factors can affect the outcome of an investigation.

What Is Hypnosis?

The word hypnosis is derived from the Greek word hypnos, which means "sleep." However, the person under hypnosis is not really asleep but is aware of his or her surroundings. Hypnosis may be defined as "an altered state of consciousness involving focused attention, heightened awareness, and concentration."1 The person in a hypnotic state can increase his or her capacity to restructure events by reorganizing his or her usual perceptions of things.

Psychodynamics

In order to comprehend how hypnosis works, it is useful to understand the systems of the mind referred to as the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious consists of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of which we are aware. The preconscious includes mental activity that we can be aware of if we attend to it. It will receive and remember those impressions classified as "safe," i.e., that have passed the screening of the ego's defenses. According to Lieutenant Byrnes, these defenses ward off that which is dangerous and harmful to the ego. The unconscious contains all the rest of our memories, including the "unsafe" ones, which are not available for recall. This is why witnesses to very traumatic crime situations such

* The technical data on hypnosis are based on materials and information provided by Lieutenant Timothy P. Byrnes (now retired), former commanding officer of the New York City Police Department's Hypnosis Unit.

as homicides are often unable to recall what they have seen. The investigator should be aware that this is not a deliberate effort on the part of these individuals to frustrate the investigation. They may very well not recall seeing the details of the incident in the trauma situation.

The unconscious consists of approximately seven-eighths of the brain. It not only receives repressed material that has been blocked by the defenses and classified as "harmful," but also stores impulses which were conscious and preconscious at one time. Furthermore, it is alert to responses on a 24-hour basis. It never sleeps. It records every stimulus regardless of the condition of the conscious of the individual. Thus, in spite of intoxication or trauma, accurate records are received and recorded by the senses and stored in the subconscious.

Value to the Investigator

Hypnosis offers the homicide investigator a means of obtaining additional information, and its application in certain murder investigations has been very effective. Hypnosis has been used to enable people to recall names, places, or details, including the actual verbalizations, which took place during the crime. In addition, in many cases persons under hypnosis have described vehicles, including make, model, color, and complete license number.

When a person is hypnotized, the conscious mind is somewhat subdued. This allows the subconscious to become a little more active. When the hypnotist talks to the person under hypnosis, the subconscious mind is more acceptable to what it is told and governs the body accordingly. In other words, a person in a hypnotic state is prone to the suggestions of the hypnotist, who acts as a guide. Thus, hypnosis and other related techniques designed to remove trauma may enable the subject to recall that which was stored in the subconscious and relate this information to the hypnotist in a clear and concise fashion.

Shortcomings of Hypnosis

Hypnosis has some shortcomings, which should be understood by the investigator prior to using this technique:

1. People can lie while under hypnosis. Although it is not policy to routinely explain this to the subject to be hypnotized, it should be noted that if the investigator seeks to know whether or not the subject is telling the truth, the polygraph should be employed. Hypnosis is not truth serum.

2. People see and remember things in various manners. Recollection may be colored by previous experience. Therefore, memory of numbers, letters, or phrases can be jumbled or mistakenly affiliated with previous associations.

3. The investigator must be vigilant about confabulation, whereby the mind fills in memory gaps with imagined or distorted information.

Case History

The following case history is typical of those handled by the New York City Police Department's Hypnosis Unit.

An investigator called the unit and stated that he had reached a dead end in his investigation. He remarked that he had only one witness, who had looked out a window after the shooting. This witness was very quiet in nature but told police that the auto in which the suspect had fled was brown, and he was able to supply one number of the license plate. At a prehypnosis introduction, then-Sergeant Byrnes noticed that the subject wore heavy, dark glasses that covered his eyes and part of his face. He spoke very little and nodded his yes and no answers, rather than saying them.

In conforming with legal parameters, the hypnotist was given limited information — only the subject's name, that he was a college graduate who lived alone, and that he had looked out the window after the shooting.

During the prehypnosis interview, the subject again only nodded when asked questions. Finally, when asked to relate the incident that he had witnessed, he replied slowly and with some difficulty. He suffered from a nervous condition of stammering, which was in fact totally out of character for this young educated individual. Apparently he was conscious of this condition and chose not to speak at length in order to avoid making the condition known to others.

When the subject was under hypnosis, Byrnes asked him to remove his glasses and thereby shed a defense mechanism. The subject did so and the session proceeded without incident until the discussion finally returned to the date and time in question. At that point, to the amazement of the sergeant and the investigator, the subject began to relate the details of the incident rapidly without even a trace of stammering. In addition, he provided the entire license plate number (explaining how he remembered the numbers in his method of association), the type of vehicle, the conversation that he had heard immediately after the shooting, the description of the suspect, his route of travel, the fact that he had stopped and had a conversation with another person on a distant corner, and the fact that another person was present and had voiced his horror about the shooting (thereby supplying an additional witness to the crime).

As a direct result, the investigator was able to continue his investigation and eventually independently verify the veracity of the statements made by the subject under hypnosis. The result was an indictment for murder. Lieutenant Byrnes adds as a postscript that the subject of the hypnosis, immediately after the session, returned to his previous stammering condition.

Summary

Practically speaking, most law enforcement agencies using hypnosis have found this technique to be quite successful. It should be noted, however, that hypnosis is not the final answer. Any information obtained through this method must be independently corroborated by further investigation. From an investigative point of view, hypnosis may provide the police with additional facts and information and should be viewed as an additional investigative tool.

Latent Prints on Human Skin

Forensic science has made some recent advances in the area of latent print development from human skin. The development of latent prints on human skin can be extremely valuable in homicide investigations and other crimes in which the perpetrator has touched the victim. Some of the methods used are simple and inexpensive, while other more advanced techniques require the use of a laser and other sophisticated equipment. The techniques presented in this section will be limited to those simple and practical methods which the average investigator can employ at the scene.

Practically speaking, many of the methods used to obtain fingerprints from human skin may not be effective in all instances. In the laboratory, these methods have proven successful; yet, under field conditions, the ability to obtain human fingerprints is rare. However, their application should be encouraged because fingerprints represent the ultimate piece of physical evidence in any criminal investigation. In homicide cases, their presence takes on an added value because the victim, who is deceased, will never be able to "point the finger" at the suspect.

General Considerations

Experiments conducted in developing latent prints on human skin indicate that fingerprints on living skin seem to last for approximately 1 to 1 1/2 hours. In deadbody cases, it is recommended that these procedures be employed as soon as possible. The state of the skin and atmospheric conditions will affect results. The ideal temperature is between 60 and 75°F.

Procedures

1. The Kromekote lift technique or unexposed Polaroid film method involves the use of the following equipment: a. Fiberglass filament brush

b. Black fingerprint powder

c. Kromekote cards (15 × 7)*

d. Unexposed Polaroid film can be substituted for Kromekote. TheKromekote card or unexposed Polaroid film is placed over the area of the skin where the suspected latent print is located, and pressure is applied to the card or film piece for approximately 3 seconds. The card or film is then carefully removed and dusted with the black fingerprint powder to develop the print, which was transferred onto the card or film. The latent print obtained will be a mirror image of a normal print and can be reversed through photography.

2. The Magna-Brush and powder direct to the skin method may be employed in the absence of Kromekote or unexposed Polaroid film, or in addition to the preceding procedure. The following equipment is necessary: a. Magna-Brush with magnetic powders

* The cards are similar to photographic paper, with a very high gloss. Various companies manufacture thesematerials. Also, you can use unexposed Polaroid film.

Figure 20.11 THE IODINE GUN. (Courtesy of Medical Legal Art. Illustration copyright 2005,

Medical Legal Art, www.doereport.com.)

b. Fiberglass filament brush with volcanic powders. The powder is applied directly to the skin. The use of volcanic or magnetic powders depends on the condition of the skin. When the skin is dry, you may obtain better results with the magnetic powder. If a print is developed, it should first be photographed using a 1 × 1 fingerprint camera. It is then lifted in conventional fashion, using cellophane "lifting" tape. Certain areas of the body will usually yield latent prints because these areas are usually touched by the perpetrator — for example, i. Upper arms of the victim ii. Areas directly behind the ear and ear lobe iii. Inner thighs directly below the crotch area (sex cases) iv. Heels and skin around the ankles (body dragged) v. The neck area vi. Wrists

3. The equipment needed for the iodine–silver transfer method* is as follows:

a. Conventional iodine fuming gun

b. A number of silver sheets approximately 2 × 2 inches. These silver sheets should be between 0.005 and 0.010 inches thick in order to conform to the skin surface. These sheets can be cleaned with whiting or silver polish and may be reused.

c. A strong light (photo floodlight is ideal).

The four basic steps in the iodine–silver transfer process are as follows:

* The description is based on FBI research. Robert J. Hazen and Clarence Philips were supervising specialistsassigned to the FBI Training Division in Quantico, Virginia, who published an article in the FBI Police Instructor's Bulletin, 1976.

1. Fume the skin tissue with vapor from the iodine gun.

2. Press the silver plate directly onto the skin, covering the area where the latent prints are believed to be.

3. Remove the silver plate.

4. Expose the silver plate to the strong light.

It should be noted that the prints on the silver sheets are laterally inverted, i.e., the left side of the print on the silver sheet corresponds to the right side of the original print. In order to reproduce the position correctly, it will be necessary when preparing prints on the negative to place the glossy side of the negative next to the emulsion side of the printing paper.*

Fingerprint from Human Skin Using the Magna-Brush Technique

Case History

On May 7, 1982, the Peel Regional Police Force Identification Bureau became involved in an extremely gruesome murder case. (See Chapter 21 for reference.)** The victim had been badly battered, sexually assaulted, and otherwise perversely attacked. She was found on her back with clothing partially removed, exposing her upper and lower body. The police felt that she must have been handled by the offender and began an examination of the body at the scene with this in mind. Detective Sergeant Geoff Hancock, Inspector Mike Metcalf, and Inspector Frank Fernandes (now deceased) were the identification officers who conducted this portion of the investigation. Initial examination was performed at the scene using the Kromekote technique; however, a limited supply of Kromekote paper yielding negative results made it necessary to go on to another technique.

At this point, the body was removed to the local morgue and prior to removal, the ambulance attendants and hospital pathologists were advised not to store the body in any refrigerated area and to ensure that none of the exposed skin areas was handled. An examination of the body for latent fingerprints was begun within an hour's time at the morgue. From this experience, it can be recommended that a good quality portable light source be used to do this type of examination, using a large hand-held magnifying glass.

The officers had received information of a technique used successfully by the police in Miami, Florida, during their investigation of the "Spa Murders." They had also used the Kromekote technique and when this was unsuccessful, progressed to the Magna-Brush powder technique. The identification officers decided to implement the Magna-Brush technique, using MacDonnell Magna Jet Black Powder.

It appeared at the scene that the legs of the deceased had been forced apart. Her jeans had been pulled down around her ankles so the areas of the legs we felt would have been handled were the inner knee and thigh areas. When this area of skin was dusted with the Magna-Brush powder, two areas revealed evidence of ridge detail when examined using the large hand-held magnifying glass. They were both on the inner knee areas. The officers photographed this ridge detail so that a proper examination could be made. The photog-

* Further information on this technique can be obtained by writing to the Law Enforcement Arts Research Unit, FBI Training Division, Quantico, Virginia, 22135.

** The author acknowledges the Peel Regional Police Department, Brampton, Ontario, Canada, specifically Inspector Rod Piukkala for providing this information relative to the preceding procedures used to recover latent print evidence from a human body.

Figure 20.12 CRIME SCENE PHOTO. Victim of lust murder found posed and propped at the crime scene, indicating postmortem activities by the offender. (Courtesy of Inspector Rod Piukkala. Photos taken by the Peel Regional Police Force, Brampton, Ontario, Canada.)

Figure 20.13 BODY AFTER MAGNA-BRUSHING. Identification officers decided to implement the Magna-Brush technique, using MacDonell Magna Jet Black Powder. (Courtesy of Inspector Rod Piukkala. Photos taken by the Peel Regional Police Force, Brampton, Ontario, Canada.)

Figure 20.14 PRINT EVIDENCE FROM SKIN. Two areas revealed evidence of ridge detail when examined using the large hand-held magnifying glass. They were both on the inner knee areas. The officers photographed this ridge detail so that a proper examination could be made. (Courtesy of Inspector Rod Piukkala. Photos taken by the Peel Regional Police Force, Brampton,

Ontario, Canada.)

raphy of the ridge detail proved to be the most critical part of the fingerprint examination. A 120 camera was used, with a good quality, heavy tripod, initially using a Polaroid back, using Type 665 P/N film. The Polaroid film did not clearly reveal the ridge detail; however, it provided a good idea as to the best angle to position the lights — in this case, a single head electronic flash unit. This angle was achieved only through trial and error. To ensure correct lighting, the recommendation is that perhaps several varied light angles be used.

During the subsequent photography, the officers also used Kodak Tri-X black and white 120 film. However, they did not reveal the ridge detail as seen under magnification because of the lack of tonal separation. The black-and-white print tended to mask the ridge detail because of light reflecting on the natural skin creases. Kodak VPS 120 was also used as well as Kodak slide film in 35 mm format.

When the color proofs were completed, a different story unfolded. The ridge detail originally seen at the morgue was quite visible on the color proofs because of the tonal separation. An identification was made shortly thereafter from the Kodak VPS 120 proofs. Although lacking a little in contrast and bearing a slight colorcast, the ridge detail, which was from the area of the suspect's palm, was positively identified. The color slide photos also taken at the morgue revealed sufficient detail for examination as well. Perhaps the

Figure 20.15 COMPARISON WITH AN INKED IMPRESSION. An identification was made from the area of the suspect's palm. He was positively identified. (Courtesy of Inspector Rod Piukkala. Photos taken by the Peel Regional Police Force, Brampton, Ontario, Canada.)

colorcasts and low contrast can be corrected by attempting to print out the cast and trying Kodacolor 120 instead of the VPS 120.

To summarize briefly the technique used, it should be noted again that the following steps should be taken:

1. Advise ambulance and hospital personnel not to handle any areas of exposed skin.

2. Do not refrigerate the body.

3. If any ridges appear as a result of applying the Magna-Brush powder, using a good lightand magnifying glass, make sure that several angles of lighting are used to achieve optimum results. If possible, make an attempt to process the film prior to the start of the autopsy to ensure that you have the best lit photograph of the latent on the skin. If this is not possible, ensure that an adequate number of photographs are taken.

4. If possible, use Tungsten lighting when photographing the latent print. This shouldprove to be a more versatile light source than electronic flash. The latent print can be lighted and viewed directly through the ground glass on larger format cameras and should yield better results.

5. Use Kodak VPS film and also Kodacolor. If attempts are successful and a colorcast isevident, attempt to print it out during the print processing to increase contrast.

Figure 20.16 LATENT PRINT ON VICTIM'S FOREARM. Two suspects had beaten the victim about the face and had stabbed him numerous times in the abdomen. The arrest was based on lifting a latent palm print of one of the suspects from the arm of the victim using Amido Black with a methanol alcohol rinse. (Courtesy of Detective Rheta Conley.)

This was the first time in the history of fingerprinting in Canada that the fingerprint of an accused on skin had been identified using this technique.

Polygraph Examinations

The purpose of this section is to familiarize the homicide investigator with the utilization in homicide investigations of the polygraph or, as it is more commonly referred to, the lie detector.*

Basically, the polygraph examination uses mechanical and electronic instrumentation to graphically record the physiological changes that take place in persons questioned under controlled conditions. Changes in cardiovascular activity, respiratory activity, and galvanic skin reflex are recorded on a moving chart as the examiner asks the subject specific questions. These charts are then evaluated to determine whether the person's answers were truthful, untruthful, or inconclusive.

Although polygraph results are generally inadmissible in a court of law unless an agreement and stipulation by counsel is obtained, the test can be very useful to

* The information and technical data presented here were provided by retired Detective Donald F. Sullivan of the New York City Police Department.

the investigators during a homicide investigation. For example, during the early stages of the investigation when the number of suspects is large, the polygraph can be used to eliminate certain suspects so that investigative resources can be employed more productively.

The proper and intelligent utilization of the polygraph coupled with the ability and expertise of the polygraph examiner may be able to do what the deceased cannot: "point the investigation in the right direction."

The Examination

The polygraph is always a supplement to a good field investigation and never a substitute for it. Often the results of a polygraph examination will be only as good as the information developed by field investigation. The polygraphist should be consulted at the early stages of the investigation as to the feasibility of using the polygraph in the investigation; it should never be used as a last resort.

Polygraphs are conducted on a strictly voluntary basis. The subject cannot be forced into taking an examination, and the examination cannot be rushed. A properly conducted polygraph test lasts approximately 2 hours or more depending on the circumstances of the case.

A polygraph examination has four phases:

First phase — pretest interview. The polygraphist learns about the subject's medical history, physical condition, and psychological background. The pretest interview determines whether the subject is capable of taking the examination.

Second phase — explanation of how the polygraph works. During this phase, the polygraphist discusses the crime with the subject, and he has the subject explain what he knows, if anything, about the crime. The polygraphist is looking for any changes in the subject's original statement given to the investigator.

Third phase — preparation of test questions. The subject is aware of the questions to be asked and there are no surprise questions. If the subject objects to one of the questions, the question is changed or eliminated.

Fourth phase — the actual testing. After the examination, the polygraphist analyzes the charts and then renders one of three opinions: truthful, lying, or inconclusive. It must be noted that re-examinations are necessary in some cases.

Possible Subjects for Polygraph Examinations

The majority of examinations are conducted with suspects. If suspects are to be questioned, they should be advised of their rights prior to testing. If the suspect has an attorney, the polygraphist should have the attorney witness the waiver.

Informants may also be tested to ascertain that the information being supplied to the investigator is correct. Witnesses may be tested for the same reason, as well as to see whether they are withholding any other details pertinent to the crime.

Subjects That Cannot Be Tested

Persons with physical disabilities, such as a serious heart condition (verified by a doctor), should not be tested, nor should pregnant women.

Investigator's Duties prior to the Examination

The investigator should provide the polygraphist with correct and adequate case facts and not withhold anything from him or her. Remember that homicide investigation requires a teamwork approach. The polygraphist and the investigator must work together in order to be successful.

The polygraphist must know the subject's history. The investigator should provide the polygraphist with the following information:

1. Prior record, especially any arrests or investigations for a similar crime

2. Possible motive for committing the crime

3. Religion and how faithful

4. Financial status

5. Anything else the investigator can think of that might be of value to the polygraphist to get an insight into the subject

The subject should be properly prepared for the examination. Like other physical evidence, he or she should be handled with care so that the examination can be done properly.

The investigator should find out why this person initially decided to take the test and the person's attitude toward it. The investigator should never assume the subject's truthfulness based solely on the fact that the subject agrees to take an examination. Any police polygraphist will show you cases of confirmed liars who are willing to take a polygraph examination.

Needless to say, certain information about the crime should always be withheld from all parties, including the news media, prior to the examination. The investigator should take the polygraphist into his or her confidence and inform the examiner of facts that only the one who committed the crime or who was present when the crime was committed would know — for example, how the person was killed, where the entry was made, what weapon was used, what items were stolen or removed from the scene, or unusual facts about the crime, such as sex mutilation or tying up of the victim.

Polygraph Procedures

The polygraphist usually has the final decision as to who can be tested, when the examination will begin, and whether the examination will continue.

Never use the polygraph as a bluff. The subject should only be asked if he is willing to take an examination when the investigator fully intends to have the subject examined.

The polygraphist is responsible for the issues to be covered in the examination. The exact wording of all test questions on the examination should be decided by the investigator and the polygraphist after conferral with each other regarding the facts of the case. Only one crime will be covered during the examination. If the subject is suspected of committing other crimes, then separate examinations should be conducted at later dates.

The polygraph examination should be conducted, if possible, first thing in the morning after the subject has had a night's sleep. On the day of the examination, the investigator should not interrogate the subject. When a person agrees to the polygraph, the investigators should cease all interrogation until after completion of the examination.

Summary

The polygraph is an investigative aid and a supplement to a good field investigation. The homicide detective should be encouraged to use this tool and to discuss its capabilities with the polygraphist who will conduct the examination. The polygraph examination is not admissible in a court of law; however, statements made to a polygraphist are admissible. The polygraph represents an extremely valuable technique in homicide investigation when employed by a competent technician working as a member of the investigative team.

Psycholinguistics

The purpose of this section is to acquaint the investigator with psycholinguistic analysis and explain how this technique can be used to obtain information on the origin, background, and psychology of a homicide suspect who communicates with the authorities. The communication can be verbal or written.*

What Is Psycholinguistic Analysis?

Psycholinguistic analysis is a sophisticated method of examining the spoken or written communication for clues as to origins, background, and psychology of the speaker or writer. Every sentence, phrase, syllable, word, pause, and comma is automatically scanned by computer for what it can reveal about the person who has communicated the message. These messages can also establish the author's identity by comparison with other messages whose authors are known. Psycholinguistic analysis combines the two disciplines of psychology and linguistics to provide an understanding of the type of personality who has originated the communication as well as a strategy for dealing with such persons. Although the primary purpose of the program, initiated by Professor Miron, was to analyze threats in connection with terrorist activities, psycholinguistics can provide the

* The material presented here is based on documents and information supplied by the FBI and in personal interviews that I had with Dr. Murray S. Miron, a professor at Syracuse University. Dr. Miron has performed extensive research in the area of psycholinguistics.

homicide detective with an effective investigative tool to identify certain suspects who taunt police with verbal or written communications.

Methodology

Upon receipt of the message or communication, the psycholinguistic expert enters the information into a computer by means of a terminal keyboard. The computer then scans the message and assigns each word to a set of categories which research has identified as important in the characterization of a threat. In addition, the computer tabulates occurrences of such things as punctuation, speech hesitancies, misspellings, and sentence structure.

The computer used to analyze a wide range of threats over the years has established what is referred to as a "threat dictionary." This threat dictionary has continued to grow in size and comprehensiveness, comprising more than 350 categories representing more than 250,000 words. These threats range from suicide notes to terrorist communications, including hoaxes and threats, which have actually been carried out. Furthermore, the computer stores over 15 million words gathered from analyses of ordinary spoken and written English. Any unusual usages or word occurrences which differ from these stored data are flagged by the computer for closer analysis. By weighing the vocabulary usages of an author or speaker against the usage employed by the average speaker, the psycholinguistic expert can derive a set of "signature" words unique to an individual that can be expected to match across differing communications.

Case History

The following case history represents the sort of information that psycholinguistic techniques can provide to law enforcement.

Prepared from communications received from an unidentified subject (UNSUB) who threatened a flight from New York to Geneva, Switzerland, Dr. Miron drew several conclusions. On the basis of psycholinguistic analyses, he judged that the UNSUB was a German-born male of at least 50 years of age who had immigrated to the United States as an adult and had resided in this country for at least 20 years. Furthermore, the analyses indicated that the UNSUB had probably written previous messages to prominent officials in the United States and Germany. Perhaps most revealing was the conclusion that the perpetrator's personality compelled him to leave clues as to his identity in the message. At the conclusion of the extortion message, there was a series of three-digit code numbers which seemed to correspond to the fictitious name of the group UNSUB claimed he directed. The following code appeared at the end of the message:

Sig: 604 247 945 305 734 430

915 837 907 Reciprocal Relief

Alliance for Peace, Justice and Freedom Everywhere

Each of the nine code groups appears to correspond to the nine words of the group name. No words are duplicated in the group name or in the three-digit code groups.

However, if the code groups are rearranged so that each group is written as a column of numbers, the code would look as follows:

6 2 9 3 7 4 9 8 9

0 4 4 0 3 3 1 3 0

4 7 5 5 4 0 5 7 7

When arranged in this way, the first three code numbers, 6 2 9, correspond to the alphabet letters of FBI. Using a standard coding device, which employs a displacement key for the remaining text, the next code groups translate as "IM" followed by two initials repeated twice. Together the translation would read "FBI, I'm JK JK." A search of the names of the passengers on the flight revealed that one of the travelers matched the profile description and part of the initials of the deciphered code. Search of the records revealed that this passenger had written and signed his name to a series of similar messages written in 1969. Subsequent psycholinguistic comparisons established that these earlier messages were written by the same suspect. After this identification, the psycholinguistic tools were then used to suggest methods for conducting the interview with the suspect. Using the clues gleaned from the messages as to the personality of the suspect, specific stratagems for approaching him were devised. These involved predictions as to how the subject would react and whether or not he might contemplate suicide or escape.

Psycholinguistics as an Investigative Tool

One of the more dramatic applications of psycholinguistic methods by Dr. Miron took place during the Patricia Hearst case. Soon after the first of the tape recordings sent by the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) had been received by the authorities, Dr. Miron prepared a series of reports for the FBI. He described the individual calling himself "Cinque" as one who fit the known background of Donald DeFreeze. Perhaps more important, these reports predicted that Patricia Hearst would join the SLA and commit some criminal acts with them. The analyses further indicated that DeFreeze and his followers were suicidal and that they would undoubtedly die in a final shootout with the authorities rather than surrender.

Practically speaking, the use of this technique in the investigation of homicide is limited to those occasions when the murderer chooses to communicate with or taunt the police with his messages. However, when such communications are received during a murder investigation, psycholinguistic analysis can be invaluable in providing authorities with an insight into the personality type of the suspect.

The "Son of Sam" case in New York City is a good example of the type of homicide case in which psycholinguistics has been used. In this particular investigation, the killer, David Berkowitz, who called himself the "Son of Sam," roamed through the streets seeking out young couples and then gunning them down with a .44-caliber revolver. In a series of cryptic messages, which he sent to a local newspaper, he claimed that he was acting under instructions communicated to him by a neighbor's dog.

Early in the investigation, the psycholinguistic method drew a profile of this killer that later turned out to fit the subject closely. Despite the fact that several eyewitness reports had indicated that the killer was in his mid-30s (Berkowitz had a receding hairline), the psycholinguistic profile based on the written communications correctly placed the killer's age between 20 and 25. As an indication of just how detailed such a profile can be, even though it is based upon only what the perpetrator may choose to write or say, Dr. Miron's profile of Berkowitz included the information that the killer was of average height and overweight (he was both), that his mother was dead or separated from the family (Berkowitz had been adopted and his adoptive mother had died when he was 14), that his father was ill or aged (he was retired), and that Berkowitz would continue to attack young attractive women until caught and when finally caught would surrender meekly to the authorities, as he eventually did.

According to Dr. Miron, a typical psycholinguistic profile consists of three sections. First, and most important from the standpoint of the homicide investigator, is a demographic profile of the author of the communication which attempts to identify the author's age, sex, birthplace, and other details that can be gleaned from the communication. Second, the profile presents such aspects of the psychology of the author as his or her motivations, personality, and pathology, if any. Finally, the profile provides an assessment of the determination and capabilities of the writer to carry out the threatened or claimed actions.

Utilizing Psycholinguistic Analysis

Requests for psycholinguistic analysis should be made through the Technical Evaluation Unit (TEU) of the FBI. The request can be made through the local FBI field office covering the jurisdiction requesting this service or can be sent direct to the following address:

Federal Bureau of Investigation H.Q.

Technical Evaluation Unit

FBI Laboratory Division

J. Edgar Hoover Building 10th and Pennsylvania Ave.

Washington, D.C. 20535

A request for psycholinguistic analysis should include reference to any previous communications or correspondence submitted to the laboratory in the case, and the facts concerning the violation insofar as they pertain to the specific laboratory examination. (For further information, refer to Chapter 17, "Collection of Evidence.")

Summary

This method of investigation has been utilized in a number of more current investigations, including the "BTK" case in Kansas. Its adaptability to homicide investigation is limited to those cases in which some form of communication takes place. The investigator should be aware of its limitations and not assume that psycholinguistics can replace traditional homicide investigation procedures. However, psycholinguistic analysis has proven to be a valuable investigative tool in cases where it has been used. In homicide cases, psycholinguistics has been used in just about every major investigation, from the "Alphabet Bomber" to the "Zodiac and Zebra Killing."

Psychics

The professional homicide detective uses many tools in the investigation to assist in the retrieval of information, some of which may be inaccessible through ordinary methods. A somewhat sensational and often controversial practice is the use of psychics. The purpose of this section is to provide the investigator with information on the use of a psychic in homicide investigations.*

Practically speaking, police officers are naturally skeptical of psychics and psychic phenomena. However, from an investigative point of view, anything that has proven to be successful in one investigation should certainly be considered in other cases. It should be noted that information provided by the psychic may not always be accurate and in some instances may have no value to the investigation. However, this should not discourage authorities from using a psychic, especially in homicide cases where information is limited. The use of a psychic can be considered as an additional investigative aid.

What Is a Psychic?

A psychic is a person who is especially sensitive to nonphysical forces of life energy. According to Noreen Renier, a psychic is a person who learns to control a portion of the brain, which is not generally used, in order to see and feel things which the average person cannot experience.

Police and Psychics

The agency that decides to utilize the psychic in a particular investigation should first establish the authenticity of the psychic by routine inquiry. Generally speaking, the decision to use a psychic is based on a report of a successful investigation attributed to psychic phenomena. This report may appear in a local newspaper or come about by word of mouth. Official contact and interagency communication will usually indicate whether the psychic was of any investigative value.

From an investigative point of view, the best way to avoid being taken in by a phony psychic is in the proper handling and control of this person. For example, having read a newspaper account of the crime, many self-proclaimed psychics

* The information presented in this section is based on research of specific cases, personal interviews, and correspondence with several psychics, including Ms. Noreen Renier, a psychic and recognized authority on the phenomena of extrasensory perception. Ms. Renier has worked with various police agencies, including the FBI on homicide cases and other criminal investigations. Web site: www.noreenrenier.com.

merely feed back information to the police which is already a matter of public record. These frauds may have access to information on the case through family members or "official leaks," which gives the impression that they have some psychic knowledge of events.

It should be noted that the police should not be telling the psychic. The psychic should be telling the police. Once the agency decides to employ the services of the psychic, all information supplied about the case to the psychic and all information provided by the psychic should flow through one contact officer, in order to maintain proper control. In addition, certain facts should be purposely withheld from the psychic in order to maintain the integrity of the investigation and assure that the information provided by the psychic is genuine and not the result of the police investigation. All conversations relative to the psychic investigation should be taped.

This is extremely important because psychics can generate a tremendous amount of information in a short span of time. Also, this information is often in the form of disjointed impressions. An investigator cannot be expected to take notes accurately and formulate questions intelligently in the face of such voluminous information. Later, the tape can be analyzed by other investigators for accuracy and follow-up, and additional questions can be formulated. Furthermore, the tape serves as a control and documentation of the information exchanged.

Summary

Empirical research into psychic phenomena has been limited, and no "hard" research data are available to indicate an accurate percentage of cases materially aided by the use of psychic phenomena. However, investigatively speaking, documentation of successes has been sufficient to merit the consideration of this technique on a case-by-case basis.

If a law enforcement agency is interested in utilizing a psychic, the agency can contact The American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) to ascertain whether it has any information about a particular psychic. The ASPR is a respected and conservative organization involved in the study of this phenomenon. Ms. Patrice Keane is the executive director and can be contacted at 5 West 73rd Street, New York, NY 10023. The telephone number is (212) 799-5050 and the Web site is http://www.aspr.com.

Police investigators should be cognizant of the utilization of psychic phenomena in criminal investigations. In any event, I neither encourage nor discourage the use of psychics in homicide investigations.

Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy

Introduction

The purpose of this section is to alert investigators to the phenomena of Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP), which is a form of child abuse whereby the parent or adult caregiver deliberately simulates or causes medical distress in a child in order to gain attention, praise, or the sympathy of others.

The result of this behavior on the part of the parent or caregiver can be fatal to the child and a number of cases of infanticide have been documented as due to this behavior. The author is aware of a case in New York state, in which a woman killed eight of her nine children between 1972 and 1985; however, most of the deaths were attributed to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). As each of her children died from what was perceived to be some unexplained illness, she was afforded the sympathy of friends, neighbors, and the medical staff of the hospital. Today, the motivations in this case could have been attributed to Munchausen syndrome by proxy.

Actually, this disorder is similar to the diagnosis of Munchausen syndrome, which is self-inflicted. The individual creates physical symptoms which result in multiple hospitalizations and medical testing. However, in the Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP) scenario, the physical symptomology and medical disorders are persistently fabricated or physically induced in the child by the perpetrating parent or caregiver. MSBP has two distinct categories, referred to as "simulation or mild form" and "production or severe form."

Simulation occurs when the offender fabricates a history for a nonexistent illness or condition in a child. For example, the offender reports blood in her child's urine. However, the offender has pricked her finger and inserted her own blood into the sample. The offender may report an undocumented history of fevers in the child. These alleged fevers are not witnessed by anyone. The fevers may appear as notations on hospital charts, which have been entered on the chart by the offender (there have been MSBP cases involving chart tampering). In some cases, offenders may actually condition victims to believe that they are ill and they will act accordingly.

Production is the intentional inducement of injury to create signs and symptoms of an illness. In documented cases, offenders have deliberately suffocated children to cause apnea and respiratory distress necessitating resuscitation. Other offenders administer nonauthorized medications or poisons to produce symptoms which necessitate painful emergency procedures as well as a series of medical testing.

Current research indicates that this behavior provides the perpetrating parent with psychological and emotional benefits ranging from a comforting, nurturing medical environment and sympathy to feelings of power and control.

Munchausen Syndrome — History and Application

Munchausen syndrome disorder is found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV, 1994). It is listed within "Factitious Disorder with Predominantly Physical Signs and Symptoms" (300.19).2 It was named after Karl Fredich von Munchausen, a German baron who had fought with the Russian cavalry in the Russo–Turkish wars. Upon his return, he amused and regaled his friends with preposterous and highly unlikely tales of his exploits. One of his associates published a collection of these outlandish tales, which added to the baron's fame.3

The baron's name and fame were rekindled in 1951 when an English physician, Dr. Richard Asher, described a psychiatric disorder whereby adults gave "dramatic and untruthful" physical histories along with the presentation of seemingly acute illnesses that were ultimately found to be false. Because of the completely factitious nature of these medical histories, the disorder, Munchausen syndrome, was named after the baron.4

Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy — History and Application

DSM-IV references this disorder under "Factitious Disorder Not Otherwise Specified" (300.19). This category includes disorders with factitious symptoms that do not meet the criteria for factitious disorder. An example is factitious disorder by proxy. DSM-IV states that "the essential feature is the deliberate production or feigning of physical or psychological signs or symptoms in another person who is under the individual's care. Typically the victim is a young child and the perpetrator is the child's mother."2

According to an article in the June 1992 issue of FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,5 "the term Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP) was coined in a 1976 report describing four children who were so severely abused, they were dwarfed."6 Dr. Boros and Special Agent Brubaker, who are considered experts in MSBP, present a number of cases that they encountered in Minnesota. In these cases, the perpetrators were male and female, with the female parent most often involved.

According to an article in the January 1993 issue of Social Work magazine,4 Dr. Roy Meadow was one of the first physicians to articulate this disorder as a diagnosis. In 1977, Dr. Meadow described a case involving a 6-year-old girl who had recurrent bloody urine.7 The child was subjected to repeated tests and hospitalizations before the doctors realized that this condition had been produced by the child's mother.4

In each of the cases in which a diagnosis of MSBP was made, the victim was a child and the perpetrator was a parent or parent substitute. The mother or female caretaker is reported as the perpetrator in almost all research and cases in literature (Jones et al., 1986).8 Mercer and Perdue state that

The mother or female caretaker is typically described as cooperative, pleasant to deal with, generally bright, appreciative of staff, involved in the child's care, and medically knowledgeable. The mother may even have a background of working in a health facility. Many of the mothers are

Figure 20.17 ARTINGSTALL TEXTBOOK. (Courtesy of Detective [retired] Rheta Conley,

Gastonia Police Department, Gastonia, North Carolina.) reported to have features of Munchausen syndrome and in some cases their physical complaints are similar to those assigned to the child.4

I interviewed Detective Kathryn Artingstall of the Orlando, Florida, Police Department, who is a recognized law enforcement authority on the subject of MSBP. She published one of the first law enforcement articles on this subject in the December 1991 issue of FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Artingstall has also published a textbook in my series entitled Practical Aspects of Munchausen by Proxy and Munchausen Syndrome Investigation, which I recommend.9

Detective Artingstall states that even though most of the research and case histories indicate that the mother is the most likely perpetrator, the offender profile has now been expanded to fathers and other family members such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other siblings and even nonrelated individuals associated directly or indirectly with the care of the victim. In fact, there are documented cases of babysitters who have been praised for heroism for saving the life of a child. Subsequent incidents and/or investigation has revealed that the babysitter was actually the perpetrator of the emergency or distress in the child.

Case History — Examples

On January 5, 1993, NBC aired a documentary on Munchausen syndrome by proxy on Dateline NBC. The program focused on this relatively new form of child abuse and its lethal potentiality. It featured a mother convicted of assault in connection with the asphyxiation of her son. The son had a reported history of 18 trips to emergency rooms of hospitals in three different states. In fact, the little boy's sister had died and was the reported victim of SIDS. She had also been to emergency rooms approximately 20 times and resuscitated before she was murdered.

On the same program, viewers were shown a videotape of a mother suffocating her daughter. The woman, who was suspected of Munchausen syndrome by proxy by the medical staff, did not know that the hospital had placed a hidden camera in her child's hospital room. The mother is observed holding the child in her arms. She very carefully removes a plastic wrap from her pocketbook and places it over the face of her daughter. As she does this, she is looking towards the door to make sure no one sees her. The child is observed struggling for air for approximately 38 seconds and then falls unconscious. The mother then runs for the doctor to report that her child is not breathing. The mother was convicted of the murder of her daughter, but the case was overturned. She was retried and convicted in 1996 and received 40 years in prison.

The Investigative Response

In most instances, the police will not be initially involved with the investigation. Mental health, social workers, and hospital personnel are usually in the best position to assess this behavior. However, when a child dies or authorities are brought in by child protective services, the police investigator should be aware of this phenomenon and the necessity of a team approach to this event. This is best accomplished by having an awareness of the dynamics of Munchausen syndrome by proxy as explained within this chapter and the necessity for complete cooperation between the medical staff and law enforcement.

Team Approach

According to Detective Artingstall,

When law enforcement officials are contacted concerning suspected cases of [MSBP], it is critical to use a multidisciplinary approach to the case. Medical staff, child protection teams, social services personnel, and hospital administrators, as well as prosecutors and law enforcement personnel, should assist in the investigation. There is no other type of investigation that requires an understanding and protocol between agencies to the degree required in M[S]BP investigations.9

In-depth documentation and review of medical records will be needed, as well as a compilation of family social history, especially as it relates to any other deaths and/or injuries. Often, an extensive and confusing medical history extends across jurisdictions.

Collection of Evidence

Detective Artingstall states,

The most common method for securing evidence is by the suspect/victim seclusion test. Simply stated, the suspected offender is secluded from the sole presence of the victim for a period of time. If the child's symptoms cease or dissipate when removed from the sole presence of the suspect and then reappear when again reunited, the inference of MSBP is significantly strengthened.

A particularly effective manner of obtaining evidence in these types of cases is the use of a concealed camera as depicted on the Dateline NBC documentary on Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Video surveillance has proven to be most effective in these cases especially when confronting the accused parent. However, this tactic may also increase the risk factor to the victim. Allowing the suspect access to the victim, even while under surveillance, does present the possibility of further harm to him or her.

In addition, placing video cameras in hospital rooms will not only require the cooperation and assistance of hospital administration and medical personnel but also may require the necessity for a court order. The early involvement of prosecutors is especially advantageous in MSBP cases when it comes to making the necessary legal determinations for covert video surveillance. In any event, investigators should consult their legal advisors to determine the appropriate applicable statutes in their particular jurisdiction. Application of this tactic requires medical safeguards to protect the child as well as sufficient personnel to document and preserve the legal aspects of the event properly.

Table 20.1 Help for Investigators

Investigators assigned to work child abuse cases should investigate cases of MSBP as they do similar cases of abuse. In general, however, when confronted with possible cases of MSBP, investigators should • Review the victim's medical records to determine condition and illness.

• Determine from contact with medical personnel the reporting parent's concerns and reactions to the child's medical treatment.

• Compile a complete history of the family to determine previous involvement with law enforcement agencies, medical facilities, and social and child protection services.

• Compile a detailed social history of the family, including deaths, injuries, and illnesses.

• Interview family members, neighbors, and babysitters.

• Use video surveillance in the hospital in accordance with state law.

• Use a search warrant for the family's residence when collecting evidence of the assaults.

Source: Reprinted from the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, June, 1992.

Table 20.2 Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy Warning Signs

• Illness which is unexplained, prolonged, and so extraordinary that experienced doctors state they have never seen anything like it

• Repeat hospitalizations and extensive medical tests without achieving a diagnosis

• Symptoms and signs that do not make medical sense

• Persistent failure of the victim to respond to therapy

• Signs and symptoms that dissipate when the victim is removed from the suspected offender

• Mothers who do not seem worried about their children's illnesses and are constantly at the child's side while in the hospital

• Mothers who have an unusually close relationship with the medical staff

• Families that have other children labeled as SIDS children

• Mothers with previous medical or nursing experience that often give a history of the same type of illness as the child

• A parent that welcomes medical test of the child, even if painful

• Attempts to convince the staff that the child is still ill, when advised that the child will be released from the hospital

• A "model family" that normally would be above suspicion

• A caretaker with a previous history of Munchausen syndrome

• A caretaker that adamantly refuses to accept the suggestion that the diagnosis is nonmedical

Source: Adapted from Meadow, R., Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 57, 1982; Guandolo, V. Pediatrics, 75(3), March, 1985, and Boros, S. et al., Children's Hospital of St. Paul, 1991.

Interviewing the Munchausen Syndrome–Related Offender*

Persons who are known to participate or are suspected of participating in child abuse as defined within the MSBP or Munchausen syndrome cases may have different reactions to specific investigative questioning techniques employed for the purpose of truth determination. Many factors, including unknown components, influence the manner in which a person accused of perpetrating MSBP or Munchausen syndrome may react. Although individual reactions to various direct and indirect questioning cannot be cemented into a specifically formatted protocol for offender interviews, commonalities in many of these interviews and empirical research provide a suggested guideline. This guideline must remain flexible as the interviewer attempts to enter the imaginary realm created by the offender.

In order to conduct these types of interviews, the detective must possess an understanding of human behavior and be able to anticipate the most common defense reactions of persons accused of child abuse through MSBP. This knowledge will provide the interviewer with the necessary skills to engage the offender in communication and dialogue that eventually overcome the sophisticated explanations and the highly polished lying skills observed in MSBP offenders.

Historically, interviewers of known or suspected Munchausen syndrome or MSBP perpetrators have generally been unsuccessful in gaining admissions of guilt from offenders. It has been theorized that at times the offender has been so immersed in the sequence of lies that led to the interview that he or she has deemed

* The information on interviewing MSBP subjects was obtained from my interview of Detective Kathryn Artingstall. This information can also be found in her textbook, Practical Aspects of Munchausen by Proxy and Munchausen Syndrome Investigation.

lies as reality and seemingly believes the deceptions to be true or genuine in origin and/or simply chooses not to reveal the truth due to the magnitude of the crime or personal impact that such a disclosure would elicit. Subsequently, interviewers have been tasked with the responsibility of attempting to point out reality to an offender whose reality base may have been altered to accommodate the deception, or they will find themselves interviewing pathological liars who refuse to admit truth and put an end to the deceptions.

Offenders of MSBP have exhibited intense emotions during interviews, e.g., crying or anger. The interviewer should expect these exhibitions by a person accused of perpetration of Munchausen syndrome or MSBP. The exhibition of these emotions, while appearing genuine, is actually a calculated mechanism to escape the exposure to reality which the interviewer is attempting to impose upon the offender. This evasive technique has been observed to be flowing as if regulated by a faucet switch, which is turned off as quickly as it is turned on. In MSBP interviews, it is common for an offender to appear to react with very intense emotions in the presence of the interviewer and then immediately become calm when the interviewer leaves the room, unless the offender knows or suspects that he or she is being observed while alone.

The necessary skills possessed by the offender of Munchausen syndrome or MSBP to further deceptive acts are generally well rehearsed. If the offender has never been approached by an interviewer regarding the possible existence of Munchausen syndrome fabrication or MSBP abuse, then the abilities of the offender to refute accusations during the interview may be significantly lessened. Most cases, however, do not fit into this category and it is probable that the offender will have had time to prepare statements which may question the interviewer's hypothesis of Munchausen syndrome-related acts. It is not uncommon for offenders to answer questions with questions and offer alternative reasoning for alleged acts. It could be expected for an offender to be versed in the area of Munchausen syndrome or MSBP, to make open-ended statements that cannot be proven or disproved, and to verbalize this status to the interviewer. The manipulative skill which the offenders normally direct toward the professionals they encounter may be redirected toward the interviewer. The ability of the offender to maintain deception is often displayed in the interview forum.

The repetitiveness of Munchausen syndrome-related actions may provide an avenue for the offender to "detach" from the actual abusive action inflicted upon the victim and hide the reality of the self-imposed role of "child abuser" (MSBP) or "victim" (Munchausen syndrome) deep within his or her mind. This mechanism of outward denial may be engaged to allow for the self-preservation of the offender. For example, the horror and shame caused by the deliberate infliction of harm onto one's child would be a difficult reality to recognize openly and maintain a "normal" lifestyle above the suspicion of family members or health care professionals.

Offenders deemed "great pretenders" may lie to themselves about parental worthiness and may subconsciously believe that they are not responsible for the MSBP abusive actions upon their children or upon themselves. With the detachment of responsibility may come the ability to hide from the reality of what is actually happening during each instance of MSBP infliction-aggravated child abuse and to perpetuate the fantasy created. The determination of whether the offender subconsciously detaches from the Munchausen syndrome actions or merely chooses not to disclose those actions of abuse, which are clearly remembered, may remain an unknown factor within the interview. In either hypothesis, if conscious acceptance of the offender's role in self-victimization (Munchausen cases) or induced harm (MSBP cases) is not attained during the interview, then a confession and disclosure regarding offender responsibility may not be obtained.

When a Munchausen-related offender is confronted, the interviewer should recognize the dynamics of denial in the offender's mind. The key to obtaining an admission of guilt may rest with the ability of the offender to accept the reality of what he or she has done. When presented with overwhelming evidence of the abuse, which could be gathered via video surveillance and/or victim/offender separation tests, the offender is not likely to accept responsibility readily for the act. Reality may not be enough to persuade the offender to tell the truth regarding the MSBP offense. Lying is a way of life for the offender, and it is unrealistic to expect explicitly truthful statements to flow readily without incentive.

When an MSBP or Munchausen syndrome offender is confronted and realizes that he or she has been exposed, extreme elements of fear and shame may be present. These combined elements may serve to seal the offender's ability to "come clean" unless an "out" is presented. The stance taken by the interviewer is critical in the final outcome of the interview. If the interviewer is nonjudgmental and appears genuinely empathic to the offender, the avenue for dialogue should remain open.

An effective interview tool is the offender's love for the MSBP child victim. Most offenders will not be able to explain why they committed acts of MSBP, especially with child victims, and will profess their genuine love for their child. By subtly suggesting that the offender has the opportunity to help the MSBP victim and quite possibly reverse permanent damage to the child by now telling the truth, the interviewer may cause the offender to see that the opportunity to redeem himself is present. Only the offender may know how the child was victimized and, by disclosing this information, may enable the doctors to correctly treat and save the victim. How the victim will view the offender in the future may very well be determined by the willingness of the offender to help the victim by disclosing the facts to the interviewer. If the love of the offender for the victim is strong enough, then he may find the strength to place the child before himself. In cases of selfinflicted injury commonly seen in Munchausen syndrome cases, the strategy of the offender's family love, especially if children are accessible, may again provide the avenue to obtaining a confession.

Interviewers of Munchausen or MSBP offenders should be aware that Munchausen syndrome-related tendencies may become multigenerational MSBP abuse. This possibility should be explained to the suspected offender of Munchausen syndrome. The interviewer can then point out to the offender how this situation might provide an opportunity for the offender and the interviewer to "work together" to intervene and halt the cycle of abuse in which the offender has been "caught up," thereby providing an "out" for the offender, which may facilitate disclosure.

If a point is reached within the interview when the offender comes close to admitting the reality of the situation and thereby the false allegation or MSBP act, the interviewer should expect the offender to attempt a retreat. This retreat may manifest itself in the direct refusal of the offender to answer any further questions or the offender threatening to end the interview if the current line of questioning does not stop. Although this manipulative technique may test the patience of the interviewer, it may be best to retreat momentarily from the current line of questioning and then revisit the issues in another form later during the interview. This action would allow the offender to feel in control of the interview, although in reality the offender is now being manipulated by the interviewer, who will possess the ability to approach the issue in an alternate manner during a time chosen by the interviewer.

The offender's fear of losing the child should not be addressed during the interview because it appears to be one of the primary blocks to obtaining a confession in MSBP cases. The interviewer may choose to address the need of the offender to admit wrong doing before treatment could begin, which could ultimately lead to a normalized relationship between the offender and the MSBP victim in the future. Care should be exercised to omit promissory statements of reunification because the likelihood that a child victim will be placed into protective custody is high. This almost certain separation of an offender from the child proxy should be minimized during the interview. If the offender chooses to make admissions regarding MSBP or Munchausen syndrome, in addition to losing the avenue of attention afforded during the Munchausen syndrome-related incidents, the offender may realize that personal freedom or custody of the children is an issue.

It appears that a Munchausen syndrome offender's biological family network may play an intricate supportive role, although the offender may deny that spouses are supportive. It appears that the offender's deception often includes the spouse, who may outwardly defend and/or support the offender's allegation of victimization or the offender's lack of knowledge regarding the origin of a proxy's ailments. It appears that a large deviation in the amount of active supportive involvement in the care of a proxy target victim occurs between the offender and the offender's spouse. It is unknown whether the offender's spouse may routinely have personal doubts about the allegations of Munchausen syndrome or MSBP victimization. This information may only be discovered if the spouse is interviewed in seclusion from the offender. Evidence alluding to the guilt of the offender and rationalization of the probable reality of the allegations may not be enough to convince the offender's spouse of guilt. Interviewers should remember that the offender's spouse has had the greatest personal access to the offender and therefore has probably been the most highly entrenched in the offender's twists of reality. It would be common for the offender's spouse initially to be in a state of denial, followed by anger.

When a confession is elicited from the offender, it is important to recognize that the admission of responsibility for the Munchausen-related act may come as a shock to the offender because of the ingrained denial within the offender's mind. When the offender faces the reality of what he or she has done, suicidal tendencies may be prevalent once shock subsides. Interviewers should be aware of this tendency and take necessary measures to protect the offender from himself or herself once responsibility is assumed.

For the perpetrators of MSBP, it appears that the personal benefits of bestowed attention, and often systems of rewards, outweigh the natural instinct that most caretakers have ingrained in them to protect their children. The MSBP perpetrators can effectively push maternal or paternal feelings aside at will to allow themselves the ability to offend and then reinstate the masquerade of a doting parent whose life centers around an ill child whom no one can apparently heal properly.

Perpetrators of Munchausen syndrome also seem to possess the chameleon ability to shift between self-abuser and alleged victim and continue an often long series of false allegations of various victimizations. For the offender of Munchausen syndrome, it appears that the ability to grasp the focused attention afforded victims of crime outweighs the inconvenience or personal injury often associated with this form of factitious crime victimization.

Case reports of MSBP victimizations verify the belief that MSBP attacks are premeditated and carefully executed acts of covert child abuse performed with the precision of a professional. The production or simulation of MSBP is rarely caught firsthand by medical personnel without a carefully devised plan. The most common methods of detection have proven to be through video surveillance or suspect/victim separation documentation.

Cases of MSBP are difficult to understand because unlike direct physical or sexual abuse of children, the abuse which the victim endures is not always clearly evident. The injury is frequently perpetrated through the actions of persons that are almost historically held above suspicion, such as the mother. Medical professionals who act in good faith in the treatment of an apparently sick individual become unwilling instruments of medical abuse because of the direct actions of the MSBP offender. The mission of medical personnel is to search out the cause of a person's illness and relieve the problem. They unwittingly become the vehicle which the MSBP perpetrator uses to maximize the desired effect of attention and self-worth derived from the MSBP act or deception that the perpetrator has created within the victim. When an interviewer is confronted with the possibility of an MSBP case, he or she must search deeper and perhaps more diligently than in other types of child abuse cases in order to find the hidden abusive causes endemic in this form of child abuse. The root causes are normally masked in the separate world of hospitalization and medicine.

The interviewer must therefore re-evaluate the perhaps ingrained opinion of what constitutes abuse and be open-minded enough to explore the possibilities that exist strongly in these types of cases.

Remember: Things are not always what they appear to be, and no one is beyond suspicion.

In most cases of MSBP, there is a marked absence of other forms of abuse such as direct physical injury or sexual assault. The victims are not routinely brought to the attention of the authorities as in cases of physical or sexual abuse victims. Serial victimizations by known or suspected Munchausen syndrome offenders require that law enforcement become familiar with the dynamics of Munchausen syndrome. The ability of an interviewer to elicit truthful responses ultimately rests with his or her knowledge, understanding, and experience with this phenomenon.

Summary

The potential for death as well as life-threatening physical damage makes this particular disorder a genuine cause for concern for the medical profession and law enforcement. From an investigative perspective, Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP) should be considered as a possible motive in any questionable or unexplained death of a child, especially when the death occurs under the circumstances presented in this section.

MSBP victims are commonly referred through intuitive medical personnel or citizens or family members that have been educated regarding MSBP as a form of child abuse. In some instances, the reporter may have a higher understanding of the MSBP concept than the agency to which it is reported and become frustrated with a department's reaction to the allegation. It is imperative that law enforcement be aware of this variant form of child abuse. The ever increasing numbers of cases reported and the public's education about MSBP — once thought to be rare — require that law enforcement be prepared to confront this public health issue.

It should be noted that a failure to understand the dynamics of MSBP could very well allow previously committed homicides of children in a Munchausen syndrome by proxy environment to remain undetected.

Homicides Involving Theft of a Fetus

Introduction

Murders of pregnant women to obtain their unborn babies are brutal and savage crimes. The offender literally cuts the fetus from the victim mother's womb in a bizarre replication of a Cesarean section procedure. This type of homicide is statistically rare, but not without precedent. In an article published in 2002 by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences entitled, "Newborn Kidnapping by Cesarean Section,"10 Burgess et al. present six cases as reference in the clinical identification of a new category of personal cause homicide for The Crime Classification Manual.

Table 20.3 Attacks on Pregnant Women to Obtain Fetus since 1987

No. Perpetrator Victim Date City, State

1 Darcie Pierce, WF, 19 Cindy Ray 7/23/1987 Albuquerque, NM

2 Jacqueline Williams, BF, 28;

Fedell Caffey, BM, 22 (coconspirator);

Lavern Ward, BM, 24 (coconspirator) Deborah Evans, WF, 28;

Debra Evans, WF, 10;

Joshua Evans, WM, 7 11/16/1995 Addison, IL (DuPage County)

3 Felicia Scott, F, 29 Carenthia Curry, BF, 17 1/31/1996 Tuscaloosa, AL

4 Josephina Saldana, HF, 40 Margartia Flores, HF, 40 9/14/1998 Fresno, CA

5 Michelle Bica, WF, 39 Theresa Andrews, WF, 23 9/27/2000 Ravenna, OH

6 Effie Goodson, WF, 37 Carolyn Simpson, WF, 21 12/22/2003 Okemah, OK

7 Lisa Montgomery, WF, 36 Bobbie Jo Stinnett, WF, 23 12/16/2004 Skidmore, MO

8 Katie Smith, WF, 22 (killed by the victim mother) Sarah Brady, WF, 26 2/10/2005 Ft. Mitchell, KY

9 Peggy Jo Conner, WF, 38 (killed by the victim mother) Valerie Oskin, WF, 30 10/12/2005 Kittanning, PA

The author prefers not to use the clinical term Cesarean section because it connotes a medical procedure as opposed to the depravity and evil demonstrated by offenders who kill a victim mother for her unborn child. A Cesarean section is a surgical procedure in which the abdomen and uterus are incised and a baby is delivered transabdominally.11 The procedure is normally performed when conditions exist in which a vaginal delivery might be hazardous to the mother and/or infant. The well-being of mother and child is taken into consideration during a Cesarean section. Obviously, an offender who commits such a reprehensible crime is not concerned about the victim mother.

According to Cathy Nahirny, administrative manager at the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, "Cesarean kidnappings represent a small fraction of the 232 infant abductions by nonfamily members since 1983 according to the center's records."12 Nahirny provided the author with a listing entitled, "Infant Abductions Where Infant Cut from Mother's Womb," which listed seven homicides and one theft of an infant after birth.

According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, nine attacks on pregnant women have taken place since 1987 (Table 20.3). There have been at least three assaults on an expectant mother for her child since 2003. Seven of the nine pregnant women were murdered during the attack. Seven of the nine babies survived.13

Infant Abductions — Infant Cut from Mother's Womb

The author based this study on seven documented cases of homicide in which the offenders killed a pregnant woman, described as a victim mother, for the purpose of obtaining the victim mother's fetus. Also included are two attempted thefts of a fetus in which the victim mother survived. These are included in addition to the seven homicides in Table 20.3 for a total of nine cases.

Figure 20.18 FETUS REMOVAL. This figure illustrates how an offender can cut across the abdomen to remove the fetus from the victim mother. (Courtesy of Medical Legal Art illustration, copyright 2005, Medical Legal Art, www.doereport.com.)

Case 1

Perpetrator: Darcie Pierce, white female, 19 years old

Date of homicide: 7/23/1987

City and state: Albuquerque, New Mexico

Victim: Cindy Ray

Child: Amelia Ray

Location: Outside a clinic

Motive: Offender was unable to conceive. She was faking pregnancy and had previously faked pregnancy. She was in an "overdue" state and needed to produce a child.

Method: Threatened the victim with a fake gun. Strangled her into unconsciousness and then used her car keys to remove the child from the womb.

Figure 20.19 VICTIM WOUNDS. This photo depicts the victim's abdomen. She had been shot in the back of her head. She suffered multiple stabbings into the neck with stab and incised wounds. The victim also had defensive wounds on her hands and arms. In addition, there was a foot-long gash across her abdomen from where the perpetrators removed the fetus. (Courtesy of Pete Siekmann, coroner, DuPage County, Illinois.)

Synopsis. The married offender approached an 8 months' pregnant woman named Cindy Ray as she left a prenatal clinic at Kirkland Air Force Base. Pierce threatened the victim with a toy gun, forced her into a car, and drove to her home where she had surgical instruments and medical books. However, the suspect's husband was at the house. The offender then drove Ray to an isolated location where she strangled the mother into unconsciousness. Pierce tied Cindy Ray to a tree and cut open the victim's abdomen with her car keys and delivered a baby girl. She left the victim to bleed to death. She was arrested after she reported that she had delivered a baby. She was taken to a local hospital where an examination revealed that she had not delivered a baby and authorities were notified.14

Case 2

Perpetrators: Jacqueline Williams, black female, 28 years old; Fedell Caffey, black male, 22 years old; Lavern Ward, black male, 24 years old

Date of homicide: 11/16/1995

City and state: Addison, Illinois

Victims: Debra Evans, white female, 28 years old; Samantha Evans, white female, 10 years old; Joshua Evans, white male, 7 years old

Figure 20.20 AUTOPSY PHOTOGRAPH OF VICTIM–MOTHER. Enlarged uterus with part of the placenta and the umbilical cord still attached. The fetus was literally ripped from the mother's womb after her abdomen was sliced open. (Courtesy of Pete Siekman, coroner, DuPage County, Illinois.)

Child: Elijah Evans

Location: Victim's apartment

Motive: Williams had been faking pregnancy to coincide with the victim's pregnancy. Her boyfriend wanted a light-skinned child. Williams was acquainted with victim mother and knew her to be pregnant with a mixedrace child. The offender had a baby shower at a relative's house.

Method: The victim was shot in the head. The perpetrators used a pair of scissors or a knife to remove the child.

Synopsis. Jacqueline Williams, her boyfriend Fedell Caffey, and her cousin Lavern Ward went to the victim mother's apartment. The victim mother was the ex-girlfriend of one of the abductors (Ward). She had already had a child by him named Jordan who was 19 months old. According to statements made by Williams, Caffey shot the victim mother in the head; Caffey and Ward then stabbed her 10year-old daughter Samantha to death and proceeded to stab the victim mother. The three assailants then participated in a crude caesarean section (using scissors or a knife) and removed the child from his mother's womb. They cleaned up the baby and took that child, plus Joshua, the 7-year-old son of the victim mother, and left the home. They left 19-month-old Jordan at the apartment with the bodies of his mother and sister. Although Joshua was originally spared when his mom and

Figure 20.21 VICTIM'S PLACENTA. The mother suffered from polyhydramnios — a condition in which the mother carries an excessive amount of amniotic fluid. That excess fluid may have saved the little infant. Miraculously, the infant did not sustain so much as a bruise during the violent attack on the mother and the brutal extraction. This was because the placenta was low and in back of the uterus. The excess amniotic fluid protected the fetus. However, in order for the baby to have survived this extraction unharmed, the process had to have occurred quickly. (Courtesy of Pete Siekmann, coroner, DuPage County, Illinois.)

sister were butchered in their apartment, his abductors decided he knew too much and had to die. They first tried poisoning him with iodine. When that did not work, they strangled him. He was then stabbed to death. They dumped his body 10 miles from the scene of the original crime.15

People from the community, who were outraged by the crime, came forward and identified Jacqueline Williams and her associates as those responsible. The baby was recovered alive and well in Williams' apartment.15

Case 3

Perpetrator: Felicia Scott, black female, 29 years old

Date of homicide: 1/31/1996

City and state: Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Victim: Carenthia Curry, black female, 17 years old

Child: Kristy Nicole Curry

Location: Victim's home

Motive: Scott wanted to give her common-law husband a baby. She had had a hysterectomy 2 years prior. She was faking pregnancy and had told her husband and family that she was pregnant.

Method: The victim mother was shot in the head and her abdomen sliced open. The body was stuffed into a plastic garbage can and disposed of at the bottom of a ravine.

Synopsis. Felicia Scott initiated the abduction at the victim's home. Scott and the victim mother were friends. The victim mother and the abductor had plans to go out to dinner at approximately 6:00 P.M. on January 31, 1996. When the victim mother did not return home by the next day, the family reported her as missing on February 1. The abductor returned home in the early morning hours of 2/1/96 and told her husband that she had had her baby and that she needed to get to Birmingham to see her doctor. On 3/14/96, the victim mother's body was located at the bottom of a 50-foot ravine approximately 60 miles northwest of Tuscaloosa, near Birmingham, stuffed into a plastic garbage can sealed with duct tape. The victim mother's abdomen had been sliced open and she had been shot repeatedly in the head.14

Case 4

Perpetrator: Josephina Sonia Saldana, Hispanic female, 40 years old

Date of homicide: 9/14/1998

City and state: Fresno, California

Victim: Margartia Flores, Hispanic female, 40 years old

Child: Doraelia Flores

Location: Taken from victim's home

Motive: Saldana claimed she had had a miscarriage. However she was sterile.

Method: The mother's body was found cut up in pieces in the trash in Tijuana, Mexico.

Synopsis. Saldana abducted the victim mother from her home. She had called the victim mother a few days earlier and offered her family gifts of free baby furniture and a 1-year supply of diapers. Saldana went to the victim's home on the day of the abduction and told the victim mother that they needed to go to the warehouse to collect the gifts. The victim mother was 8 1/2 months' pregnant with her sixth child. When the victim mother did not return by 3:00 P.M., the family called the police. The next day, 9/15/98, Saldana showed up at Valley Children's Hospital with a dead fetus. She claimed she had given birth to the child in her car. She was subsequently arrested and found guilty. While she was in prison, she hanged herself.14

Case 5

Perpetrator: Michelle Bica, white female, 39 years old

Date of homicide: 9/27/2000

City and state: Ravenna, Ohio

Victim: Theresa Andrews, white female, 23 years old

Child: Oscar Gavin Andrews

Location: The offender's home

Motive: Bica was faking pregnancy and had convinced her husband and family that she was pregnant. She had had a miscarriage in 1999.

Method: The offender shot the victim mother in back, cut open her abdomen with a large knife, and removed the fetus. She buried the body in the garage. (See the Case History following Case 9.)

Case 6

Perpetrator: Effie Goodson, white female, 37 years old

Date of homicide: 12/22/2003

City and state: Okemah, Oklahoma

Victim: Carolyn Simpson, white female, 21 years old

Child: Baby Boy Simpson

Location: The offender offered the victim mother a ride from the casino. Homicide location is unknown.

Motive: Goodson was faking pregnancy. She had told her husband, family, and friends she was pregnant with a baby boy due in October 2003. She then provided a number of explanations why she had not yet delivered by the October due date. She had had a baby shower and prepared a room with items for a newborn.

Method: The victim mother was shot in the head. Her abdomen had been sliced open with an unknown instrument.

Synopsis. Goodson was a patron of the casino where the victim mother was employed. They had been introduced to each other by a mutual acquaintance about 1 month prior to the incident. On the night of 12/22/03, video cameras at the casino captured the image of the victim mother and the suspect departing the building at approximately 11:00 P.M. Apparently, the abductor had offered to give the victim mother a ride home and also provide her with some baby clothes for a girl because the offender was "expecting a boy child." The victim mother never arrived home from work and her husband reported her as missing on 12/23/03. At approximately 4:00 A.M. on 12/23/03, the suspect and her husband arrived by ambulance at the Emergency Department of Holdenville General Hospital (no birthing unit at this hospital) with a very small, unresponsive infant. Staff determined that the infant (approximately 6 months' gestation) was deceased. The medical status of the alleged mother proved that she had not recently delivered a baby and law enforcement was notified.

On Friday, 12/26/2003, hunters found the victim's body in a ditch about 20 miles south of Okemah (approximately 2 miles from where the abductor used to live). The victim mother had been shot once in the head (small caliber) and her abdomen had been cut open with an undetermined sharp object. Investigation revealed that Goodson reportedly was jealous of her stepdaughter (who had given birth recently) and wanted to have her own baby. She was later found incompetent to stand trial.16

Case 7

Perpetrator: Lisa Montgomery, white female, 36 years old

Date of homicide: 12/16/2004

City and state: Skidmore, Missouri

Victim: Bobbie Jo Stinnett, white female, 23 years old

Child: Victoria Jo Stinnett

Location: Victim's home

Motive: Montgomery had told her husband and others that she was pregnant with twins. Her ex-husband reported that she had had a tubal ligation 14 years earlier.

Method: The offender strangled the victim mother and then cut the fetus from her womb.

Synopsis. Montgomery took the baby from the victim's home. The victim mother was 8 months' pregnant at the time of the incident. She and her husband bred rat terrier dogs and had a Web site. At approximately 2:30 P.M., the victim mother cut short a telephone call with her mother indicating that the person she was expecting (to buy a dog) was at her door. Her mother arrived at her daughter's home about 1 hour later and found the victim mother lying in a pool of blood, the fetus cut from her womb. Multiple law enforcement agencies worked on the case and the victim's computer was carefully examined. Investigators were able to trace some e-mail communications the victim had with the abductor. Montgomery eventually confessed to strangling the victim mother and cutting the baby from her womb. The abductor and victim mother were casual acquaintances, and both had attended the same dog show in April, 2004, in Abilene, Texas.17–19

Attempted Theft of Fetus Offender Killed by Victim Mother

Case 8

Perpetrator: Katie Smith, white female, 22 years old

Attempted homicide: 2/10/2005

City and state: Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky

Victim: Sarah Brady, white female, 26 years old

Child: McKaila Grace Hatton, born 3/16/05

Location: Offender's apartment

Motive: Smith had faked her pregnancy. She had a hospital bag packed and ready as if she were going to deliver. She wore maternity clothing.

Method: The offender attempted to stab the victim mother, who fought back.

Synopsis. Kate Smith had lured the victim mother to Smith's apartment on the pretense of giving her a baby present from Babies R Us registry online, which had been mistakenly delivered to the Smith residence in Ft. Mitchell. The apartment was outfitted with surgical tools and a fully stocked nursery. Smith attacked the victim mother in an attempt to extract her unborn child by Cesarean section. The woman fought back and fatally stabbed her attacker.13,20

Attempt Theft of Fetus — Offender Arrested

Case 9

Perpetrator: Peggy Jo Conner, white female, 38 years old

Attempted homicide: 10/12/2005

City and state: Kittanning, Pennsylvania

Victim: Valerie Oskin, white female, 30 years old

Child: Unnamed at time of incident, born 10/12/05

Location: Victim's trailer home

Motive: Offender had faked her pregnancy. She also had shown her live-in a sonogram and convinced him she was pregnant.

Method: Hit victim over head with baseball bat and was prepared to remove fetus by cutting across the victim's abdomen with a razor knife.

Synopsis. Peggy Jo Conner, who had purported to be pregnant, bashed her 8-month pregnant neighbor Valerie Oskin over the head with a baseball bat. She then put the badly beaten Oskin in her car along with Oskin's 7-year-old son. She dropped the boy off at a relative's house and drove the victim 15 miles to a remote wooded area. The victim had been cut across her abdomen over an old Caesarean scar with a razor knife. A teenager who came upon the scene saw Conner kneeling next to the pregnant victim who was lying on the ground. Conner told the boy that everything was all right and they did not need any help. The boy informed his father and the police were called. Investigators found a bassinet, a baby swing and other baby-related items in Conner's trailer home. Conner had convinced her live-in partner that she was pregnant even showing him a sonogram.24,25

Case History

On September 27, 2000, 23-year-old Theresa Andrews, who was 9 months' pregnant, literally disappeared without a trace. Her husband reported her missing to the Ravenna Police Department.

The husband, Jonathon, told police that on Wednesday morning Theresa told him that she received a call at home from a person inquiring about a Jeep the Andrews were selling. He stated that Teresa paged him at work and he told her to be careful showing the Jeep. He also stated that he told her not to take a test drive, just get the person's I.D. and give him or her the keys. He said that when he called home at noon, no one answered. Jonathon stated that when he got home from work at about 4:30 P.M., his front door was unlocked and Theresa was missing along with the Jeep that was for sale. Teresa's purse, cell phone, and other personal items were left behind. Jonathon first called his relatives and then called the police.

Police Response. Police officers immediately secured the scene and requested detective response. The police conducted an initial search of the residence after requesting the husband's permission. Police immediately had an APB broadcast for the Jeep.

The Detectives. Detective Greg Francis interviewed the husband, who told him about the call that his wife had received. Additional investigators contacted and questioned family members. Theresa's parents, who were vacationing in North Carolina, returned home. The interviews of family members indicated that Theresa and Jonathon were a happily married couple and very excited about the birth of their first child.

An initial search of the residence did not reveal any signs of a struggle or that Theresa had been forced from the house. Everything seemed to be in place. Theresa's pocketbook with all of her identification was found in her residence. On the end table were a glass of juice and a pudding cup that was half-eaten, suggesting that Teresa had suddenly departed the residence.

At this stage of the investigation, The Ravenna Police Department was handling the case as an abduction or involuntary leaving. The FBI was contacted for assistance. The Andrews family also hired private investigators to assist police.

At approximately 6:00 P.M., an officer located the Jeep in a county parking lot southwest of and 200 feet behind the Andrews' house. The keys were missing. Jonathon and Theresa had cleaned and vacuumed the Jeep the day before to make it more attractive for sale. It was spotless.

The Jeep was towed into the station house for crime scene processing. There were not any visible signs of a struggle or violence. However, the keys were missing and someone would have had to drive it to the location where it was found.

Investigation. A major case was initiated with Detective Sergeant Bob Cooper and Detectives Francis and Lisa Blough. At this stage of the investigation, the police were attempting to eliminate family members as suspects. Detectives were operating under the assumption that whoever called Theresa about selling the Jeep on Wednesday morning was probably responsible for her disappearance.

On Thursday morning, Detective Francis had a subpoena sent to Ameritech for a phone trace on the call that was made to Theresa at 9:18 A.M. on Wednesday, September 27. The process of tracing the phone call to the Andrews home was complicated because the call had come from a phone issued by another carrier. The address of origin was not readily available and a security expert was brought in to assist in the trace.

On Thursday afternoon, Jonathon was asked to take a polygraph exam at the request of authorities to eliminate him as a suspect.

All hospitals, clinics and even hotels and motels in the area were checked and leaflets with Theresa's picture were distributed throughout the state.

Break in the Case. The Ravenna Police were advised that the phone call was successfully traced to a cell phone. It took telephone security people 5 days to trace that particular call. The subscriber was a Thomas Bica, who lived just two blocks from the Andrews residence.

Investigators went to the residence and interviewed 39-year-old Michelle Bica, the wife of the subscriber, Thomas. Michelle was visibly nervous and gave detectives the explanation that the cell phone in question had been stolen from her in a Wal-Mart. When asked about a second call made that same day from the same cell phone, she identified the number as that of the family doctor and the call was from another phone.

Michelle was asked about her activities on the day that Theresa Andrews had vanished. Michelle told them that she had been to a car dealer in the morning looking at cars and that she had delivered a baby boy that afternoon. She then told the detectives that the cell phone she had used was the cell phone in her car. Michelle then led the detectives to the garage door, which was padlocked, began going through papers, and showed them another cell phone. She then relocked the door in the presence of the detectives.

As the police were interviewing Michelle, her husband, a corrections officer at the county jail came home. Michelle, who was a large-framed woman, claimed she had given birth to a baby boy. She told police she had the baby on Wednesday, September 27, the same day that Theresa had disappeared.

Michelle, who was quite obese, (5 ft, 3 in., 200 lb) had convinced her husband over the last 9 months that she was pregnant. She told a bizarre tale of how her water broke and that she had called her doctor, who sent an ambulance to her house. She claimed to have been at an Akron Hospital but, because of an infectious woman there, she was sent to another facility and then she and the baby were released.

Michelle and her husband celebrated the birth of their son, "Mickey," on Thursday, September 28.

The husband was interviewed and he stated that his wife Michelle had called him at the county jail to tell him that she had delivered a baby boy. He left work 15 minutes early.

Two investigators were detailed to keep the Bica residence under surveillance as other investigators checked on Michelle's story. They ascertained that she had not been to the Akron hospital or to any other medical facility. The family doctor told police he conducted a well baby exam for Michelle on September 29 and she told him she had delivered the baby at a hospital in Ravenna. Michelle Bica became the primary suspect in the disappearance of Theresa Andrews.

Investigators returned to the Bica residence at 9:00 P.M. that Monday evening to confront Michelle. When the detectives arrived at the Bica home, they observed that the house was dark and the lights were off. Suddenly, they heard a gunshot. The upstairs lights came on in various rooms and a male voice could be heard screaming, "Michelle, Michelle." Tom Bica called 911 and reported that his wife had just shot herself. The police ordered Tom to exit the residence.

Michelle's body was located in an upstairs bedroom. She had committed suicide by shooting herself in the mouth with a .22 caliber gun. The body was observed on the floor. The bedroom door had been forced open. Michelle Bica, knowing that the police had figured out her deception, put a .22 caliber pistol into her mouth and committed suicide.

Police searched the house and found the 7 lb, 8 oz newborn infant in a second-story nursery. The newborn baby was safe and asleep in its crib and in good health. The child was placed in the custody of the Portage County Family services.

Subsequent DNA tests proved that the child was, in fact, the son of Theresa and Jonathan Andrews. Jonathon and his newborn son were reunited after a brief stay at the hospital to assure that the infant was in good condition and had not received any internal injuries during such a traumatic birth.

Thomas Bica was transported to the Ravenna police station where he was questioned for 10 hours and given a polygraph test before being released into the custody of his parents. He denied any knowledge of the disappearance of Theresa Andrews or her unborn child. Bica was convinced that the newborn baby was his.

Bica was questioned several times thereafter and given additional polygraph tests by different operators. It was determined that he was naïve and had no knowledge of the murder and the taking of the baby. Thomas had no explanation why his wife would take her life.

The police learned from Thomas that Michelle had ordered a large quantity of gravel for their driveway and garage. Thomas told them that he and Michelle had spread the gravel in the driveway and garage 2 days after Theresa had vanished.

The Crime Scene. Detectives immediately advised investigators at the suicide scene that Theresa's body was possibly buried somewhere at the Bica home. A search warrant was obtained. Detectives examined Michelle's pocketbook. Inside the pocketbook were the keys to the Andrews' Jeep.

Detectives discovered dried blood under the dryer in the laundry room. This was the location where the victim mother had been shot and had her fetus cut from her womb. Michelle Bica had told her husband that she had given birth in the laundry room. She told him that she had cleaned most of it up and there had been a strong smell of disinfectant. The dried blood under the clothes dryer was matched to Theresa Andrews through DNA analysis.

Investigators searched the driveway and found a trail of blood leading from the house to the garage. Inside the garage was evidence of a recent excavation. In the garage under the car was a shallow grave where the body of Theresa Andrews had been buried. Beneath the gravel, under a piece of plywood, the authorities discovered Theresa's body. The detectives also recovered a knife in the gravesite, which the medical examiner later ruled was the knife used to slash open the abdomen of the victim to remove her child from the womb.

Figure 20.22 RECOVERY OF VICTIM'S BODY. The police learned that the suspect had ordered a large quantity of gravel for the driveway and garage. Investigators searched the driveway and found a trail of blood leading from the house to the garage. Inside the garage, there was evidence of a recent excavation. In the garage under the car was a shallow grave where the body of Theresa Andrews had been buried. (Courtesy of Chief Randall McCoy and

Detective Sergeant Bob Cooper, Ravenna, Ohio, Police Department.)

Figure 20.23 RECOVERY OF WEAPON USED TO EXTRACT FETUS. Beneath the gravel under a piece of plywood, the authorities also recovered a knife in the gravesite, which the medical examiner later ruled was the knife used to slash open the abdomen of the victim to remove her child from the womb. (Courtesy of Chief Randall McCoy and Detective Sergeant

Bob Cooper, Ravenna, Ohio, Police Department.)

Medical Examination. The medical examiner ruled the cause of death to be a bullet wound from a .22 caliber gun, which had entered the victim's left upper back penetrating the left lung and heart. A foot-long horizontal cut had been made across the victim's abdomen to facilitate the removal of the fetus. Michelle Bica used this same gun to commit suicide.

Motive. Michelle Bica had spent months convincing everyone, including her husband, family, and neighbors, that she was pregnant. She gave neighbors updates on her sonograms and set up a baby monitor in the kitchen. She and Thomas toured Akron General Medical Center's maternity unit and even made plans for the baby's christening as she stalked Theresa.

She called Thomas at work at 2:30 P.M. and told him she had delivered a baby boy whom she had named "Mickey." Thomas was so excited he began handing out cigars. Over the next few days, neighbors streamed in to see the newborn. One neighbor remembered Michelle expressing concern for the missing Theresa and stating, "You just can't trust anybody no more."

When Jonathon Andrews saw Michelle Bica's photo on the TV news, he was shocked when he realized he recognized her. In mid-September, he and Theresa had spoken to an older couple, also expecting, in the baby aisle of a nearby Wal-Mart. Theresa had confided that her baby was due in 3 weeks. The couples compared addresses, remarking on how close they lived to one another. Jon said they seemed like a nice couple. Theresa had even

Figure 20.24 AUTOPSY PHOTOGRAPH. The medical examiner ruled the cause of death to be a bullet wound from a .22 caliber gun, which had entered the victim's left upper back penetrating the left lung and heart. A foot-long horizontal cut had been made across the victim's abdomen to facilitate the removal of the fetus. The incision and extraction of the fetus had to have been done within 10 minutes before all of the oxygen was drained from the uterine blood supply. (Courtesy of Chief Randall McCoy and Detective Sergeant Bob Cooper, Ravenna, Ohio,

Police Department.)

told her mom how friendly people in Ravenna were: "People even stop you in Wal-Mart to talk to you."

Michelle now knew where she could get her baby. Teresa was the target.

Michelle had already begun stalking Theresa for her baby. Using the For Sale sign in the rear window of the Jeep as her entrée, she went to the Andrews' home. Somehow, she was able to lure the pregnant victim mother to her house, where Teresa was murdered for her unborn baby.

How the Fetus Survived. Doctors opined that the foot-long incision would have to have been made shortly after the gunshot to Theresa's back in order for the fetus to have survived. Dr. Marcial stated, "This was a well-planned affair." Dr. Marcial told reporters that he had delivered thousands of babies when he was a family practitioner and he could not have done it that fast. The incision and extraction of the fetus had to have been done within 10 minutes before all of the oxygen was drained from the uterine blood supply. A time line was constructed from witness statements and it was determined that this event occurred between 10:00 A.M. and 12:00 noon.21

Investigative Assessment and Analysis

The Offender Profiles

In each of the seven homicides as well as the two attempted murder cases, the primary offender was a female 19 to 40 years of age acting alone. The exception was Case 2 involving Jacqueline Williams, who was accompanied by her boyfriend and male cousin, who assisted in the murders.

All of the offenders had faked their pregnancies, convincing family and friends that they were about to give birth. Four of the women were unable to conceive, two offenders had had hysterectomies, and one offender had had tubal ligations. The offenders, who had put on weight, had dressed in maternity clothing. Some of the offenders had made preparations for their "newborn," including setting up nurseries, visiting the hospital, and showing "their" sonograms.

The offenders had preselected and stalked their victims. Stalking incidents indicate obsessions on the part of the offenders, manifested through a persistent and intense preoccupation with the victim or target. Historically, stalkers are usually male offenders known to the victim and, in most instances, involve former lovers, boyfriends, or spouses. However, it should be noted that some stalkers are complete strangers to the target. These stalkers can be men or women. In cases such as these, the stalker is invariably a woman with a fixation on obtaining the victim mother's baby.

In some cases, the offenders had met the victim mother through casual introduction, engaging the victim by befriending her or offering advice, assistance, and/or gifts. The offenders were able to manipulate their victims by conning them until they were ready to attack. The exception was Darcie Pierce, who was desperate and "overdue" in her faked pregnancy. She confronted her victim at gunpoint (fake gun) to abduct her and steal the fetus. Although she had surgical instruments at home, she could not take the victim mother there because her husband was at home. She used her car keys to open the victim mother's abdomen to extract the fetus.

Four of the seven offenders went to their respective victims' homes to initiate the homicide. Two of the offenders took the victim mother to an isolated location. In Case 5, the offender was able to con the victim mother back to the offender's home to be killed. In Case 8 (an attempt case), the offender even had the surgical tools ready to extract the woman's fetus. In Case 9, the offender went to the victim's trailer home to initiate the crime and then transported the victim to a rural location. Six of the seven victim mothers were killed before the fetus was cut from the womb. One victim was left to bleed to death.

Five of the seven babies survived. Two of the offenders who claimed to have given birth brought the two dead fetuses to the hospital. One of the infants was of approximately 6 months' gestation. In the two attempt cases, the babies survived, even though in Case 9 the offender had already cut open the victim's abdomen. A Cesarean procedure was performed at the hospital and both mother and child were saved.

Offender Motive

In the seven cases that I reviewed, the primary motivation underlying these murderous acts were to sustain a relationship with a male partner by providing him with a child. Six of the women had convinced their significant others that they were pregnant. In Case 4, the motive is not clear. In Case 8 (attempt), it appears that the offender was just obsessed with becoming a mother. The offender did not have a significant male in her life; she had convinced family, friends, and coworkers that she was about to give birth. She carried around a book filled with snapshots of her looking pregnant. She had a nursery stocked with baby items and a hospital bag packed and ready as if she were about to deliver a child. In Case 9 the offender had convinced her male companion that she was in fact pregnant and had shown him sonograms.

Burgess et al. propose that another motivation is to fulfill a childbearing and delivery fantasy. "The female abductors, in essence, become a mother by proxy by acting out a fantasy of them delivering a baby." Burgess et al. present that the abductors in their six-case study "decided to do something physical to get the baby."10

From an investigative standpoint, this suggests that the motivation involves some significant planning and preparation. The cases that I have cited here clearly represent organized and criminal behavior. The psychopathology of these offenders may very well encompass some form of delusional thinking but not to the point of insanity. The women offenders in this study were fully conscious of their actions and intentions. They chose to kill the victim mother for her unborn child to fulfill a narcissistic need. The offenders then disposed of the victim mother to effectively cover up their crime and avoid detection. In my opinion, this psychopathology is more consistent with psychopathy than psychosis.

Abduction Investigative Strategies

Police Response

The initial police response to a report of a missing pregnant woman must include immediate notification to detectives and an APB broadcast description of the victim mother. Research on this type of offense indicates that the offender will most likely accomplish this crime within less than 2 hours of the abduction. In fact, the author recommends an Amber Alert type of response, which will actively inform the media and the community of this event. An attempt should be made to obtain assistance from federal authorities early in the investigation.

Detective Response

Detectives should immediately begin a neighborhood canvass to ascertain whether the victim mother had been seen in the company of another pregnant women. In most of these cases, the offender has initiated some sort of casual relationship with her potential target. It is not unlikely that the offender has visited or interacted with the victim mother on prior occasions. The canvass may provide the investigators with offender descriptions, license plate numbers, and other identification information. An attempt should be made to obtain assistance from federal authorities early in the investigation.

Additional Information

The value of transmitting this information in an Amber Alert format is that people who may have had suspicions about a friend or neighbor purporting to be pregnant and would not have thought of notifying the police might now have a different frame of reference. In the cases that I reviewed, there was always someone (usually another woman) who had expressed doubt about the offender's alleged pregnancy or the sudden appearance of a newborn. Interviews with investigators who had been involved with these types of cases validate this assumption.

In five of the cases, (Cases 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6), the offenders disposed of or hid the body of the victim mother. In two cases (Cases 2 and 7), the body was left at the scene. In three cases where the body was disposed of or hidden, the offenders showed up at a hospital. Two offenders (Cases 4 and 6) arrived with the dead fetuses, claiming to have given birth. The other offender (Case 1) showed up at the hospital with a live baby for assessment. In the two attempts (Cases 8 and 9) we don't know what the final disposition of the victim's body would have been because the crimes were interrupted before the murders and thefts of the fetus could be completed.

Subsequent hospital examination revealed that the offender women had not given birth. Authorities were notified and the offenders were arrested. The live child was properly identified through DNA and returned to the biological father. The bodies of the three victims were recovered during the criminal investigation.

Two of the offenders (Cases 3 and 5) continued the charade until police investigators caught up with them. Offender Scott managed to elude authorities for 8 days as she presented the baby as her own. She was arrested and the baby was returned to the victim mother's family. Offender Bica "played" mother for 5 days, during which time she showed off her new baby to friends and neighbors. Bica shot herself when the authorities came to her residence to arrest her. The newborn was reunited with the biological father after DNA testing.

Summary

These crimes are unimaginably evil. They devastate the surviving families of the victim mother and horrify the general public. In my opinion, the infants that do survive such a traumatic birth are truly miracle babies. However, these cases are not without precedent. There are unique behavioral profiles to these offenders. I have provided here examples of their motivations, manipulations, and preparation for their crimes, including victim selection and modus operandi, to serve as a frame of reference in the investigation of these types of incidents.

Stalkers

Introduction

This section focuses on the phenomenon of stalking. I present specific types of stalkers and identify experts and organizations which can assist in intervention strategies. In addition, I will provide information on anti-stalker legislation, which provides law enforcement with the necessary legal tools to protect society from the terror of this type of offender.

Stalkers

A stalker is someone who intentionally and repeatedly follows, attempts to contact, harasses, and/or intimidates another person, whom I refer to as "the target." A stalker usually follows the target to his or her home, school, place of employment, business, or any other location. Stalkers often intimidate their victims through unsolicited and intrusive communications or by engaging in conduct which is threatening or indicates that the stalker intends to injure the person or property of the target. This includes sexual assault and/or bodily harm. Stalking incidents indicate an obsession on the part of the offender, which is manifested through a persistent and intense preoccupation with the victim or target.

Historically, stalkers are usually males known to the victim and, in most instances, involve former lovers, boyfriends, or spouses. However, it should be noted that there are also stalkers who are complete strangers to the target. These stalkers can be men or women who have a delusional fixation on the victim.

In either event, the stalker represents a significant law enforcement problem. The police may be keenly aware of the potentially lethal nature of the stalking activities, but are often prevented from taking any action or arresting the offender due to legal technicalities.

Orders of Protection

The traditional response of the criminal justice system to threats posed by stalking has been to issue "orders of protection" or "restraining orders." Court orders require that the respondent and/or defendant stay away from a person or premises, or refrain from verbal or physical abuse. If the person named on the order is proven to have violated the instructions, he or she can be held in contempt.

In some instances, court orders may prove to be effective deterrents. Cases of this nature usually involve normal and rational respondents who remain away from the petitioners in order to avoid any further legal problems. However, in most instances, these court orders prove absolutely useless. I have investigated hundreds of cases where women who had obtained orders of protection were beaten, knifed, sexually assaulted, and killed. The court order directs the other partner to stay away from the petitioner and refrain from any further harassment. The man becomes enraged with his loss of control and the attempt by the woman to break the relationship and engages in various acts of harassment, which include stalking, threats, assault, or other subtle forms of "psychological warfare."

In one particular case, the offender quite graphically indicated his contempt for the order of protection and the criminal justice system. He had stabbed his wife to death after ripping up the court order. When I arrived at the crime scene, I observed the woman's body lying on the floor with the shredded court order knifed into her chest.

In fact, at one point in my career, so many victims under orders of protection were being killed that we came to refer to the court orders as "orders of illusion." These documents gave the victim the illusion of being protected but were virtually unenforceable.

Anti-Stalker Legislation

Anti-stalker legislation appears to be a logical and workable solution. This type of legislation provides law enforcement authorities with the statutory tools they

Figure 20.25 STALKER VICTIM. This victim was accosted in her sleep by an assailant who had been stalking her and her roommate. When her roommate left on Spring Break, the killer gained access to the young woman's apartment. He blindfolded her and secured her hands and arms with bindings. (Courtesy of Investigator Tom Jordan, State College Police Department, State College, Pennsylvania.)

Figure 20.26 STABBING INJURIES. The victim was multiply stabbed in the chest and breast by her assailant, who became enraged when she defecated out of fear. His original intent was to rape her. He cleaned the blood off her chest and then covered the stab wounds. The face of the victim was also covered with the bed cover, which had been removed when the body was found. (Courtesy of Investigator Tom Jordan, State College Police Department, State College, Pennsylvania.)

Figure 20.27 THE VICTIM'S BODY POSED FOR VIEWING. The killer then posed the body spreading her legs open to expose the vaginal area. Police reconstruction indicated that he had previously watched the victim from an empty apartment across from where the victim lived. He then went back to this location to view the nude and sexually positioned body of his victim. (Courtesy of Investigator Tom Jordan, State College Police Department, State College, Pennsylvania.)

require to protect victims from inappropriate and unwanted contact. Anti-stalker laws are aimed at halting patterns of threats and harassment that often precede violent acts of assault, rape, and murder.

In 1990, the State of California passed the first anti-stalking law. This legislation was the direct result of the murder of five young women within a 6-week period. All but one had sought help in vain. As of November 1999, all 50 states' legislatures, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Virgin Islands, and the federal government had enacted laws making stalking a crime. In 1996, a federal law was enacted to prohibit stalkers from traveling across a state line in pursuit of their victims. This legislation enabled federal prosecution in instances where the interstate feature of a stalking case created additional challenges to effective state investigation and prosecution of such crimes.23

The anti-stalker laws specifically define conduct considered threatening and intimidating and place the onus on the stalker to prove that he or she did not intend to harass or frighten the victim. The crime is elevated from misdemeanor to felony status based upon the issuance of an injunction or restraining order. In addition, the felony degree is also elevated based upon the seriousness of the violation or threat.

The overall effectiveness of anti-stalker laws, however, still remains with the courts. In order for these laws to be effective, the judges must take them seriously. Their legal responsibility must be guided primarily by the nature of the act and the seriousness of the threat and they must be willing to properly sentence and restrain offenders who stalk.

Types of Stalkers

Clinically speaking, stalkers can be divided into two specific types of personalities. The psychopathic personality is fully aware of the criminality of his actions; the psychotic personality may be suffering from a psychosis and/or have been diagnosed as having a specific disorder. The motivations for stalking range from power and control scenarios to bizarre obsessive delusions including infatuation fantasies.

The Psychopathic Personality Stalker

This type of stalker is invariably a male offender and represents the larger population of stalkers. He comes from an abusive home and dysfunctional family where violence was the normal way to settle disputes. The offender and the offender's mother were subjects of domestic violence. He is basically a control freak who is easily stressed and frustrated and cannot take responsibility for his actions.

This type of offender insists on male dominance. He will also exhibit a hypermacho exterior in order to hide feelings of inferiority. He is an abusive personality who harbors hostility against women. However, if the woman attempts to separate or end this abusive relationship, this type of offender will respond with violence.

The stalker with the psychopathic personality is the most common type of stalker. This offender may have had a relationship terminated because of his abuse and then refuses to accept the termination. Abusive men frequently wage psychological warfare against their victims in shrewd, untraceable ways. They destroy and vandalize property, send packages or deliveries, poison and kill pets, phone anonymous threats, and engage in various other forms of harassment.

The male abuser engages in stalking because he has lost his control over the target (a former girlfriend or wife). The stalking puts him back into control. He is motivated by the perverse psychology of "If I can't have you, then no one can have you!"

According to Ruth Micklem, codirector of Virginians against Domestic Violence, "Nearly one third of all women killed in America are murdered by their husbands or boyfriends and as many as 90% of them have been stalked" (Newsweek, July 13, 1992).

Case History

April, a young woman who had divorced her abusive husband, secured a family court order of protection because the ex-husband, Anthony, continued to harass her. The police could

Figure 20.28 STALKING VICTIM FOUND INSIDE HER APARTMENT — BODY POSED

BY KILLER. The victim recognized her assailant at the front door and mistakenly admitted him. He attacked her with a knife. The victim was then raped and sodomized. The investigation revealed that he had repeatedly attempted to make contact with her by leaving notes on her car and showing up at her apartment. (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant Alan Patton, Grand Prairie, Texas, Police Department. Photo by Evidence Technician Don Swanz.)

not arrest Anthony when April reported that he had cut her phone lines and slashed her tires because there were no witnesses. Her ex-husband was finally arrested when police caught him breaking into his ex-wife's house.

However, the judge released Anthony on $25 bail and the harassment grew worse. The next incident was almost fatal. Anthony, who had managed to gain entry into April's house, ambushed April from a closet with a sawed-off .22 rifle and a knife. He repeatedly cut and stabbed her with the hunting knife rupturing her lung and liver. Anthony was arrested and charged with attempted murder. April remained hospitalized for over a month with her injuries.

Anthony was held on $25,000 bail despite pleas by the district attorney for higher bail and the seriousness of the charges; 8 months later, Anthony's family bailed him out. The police and district attorney feared for April's safety and installed a sophisticated intrusion alarm in her house. In addition, the police provided her with a hand-held electronic device to signal police in an emergency.

Within 2 months of his release, Anthony, who had been ordered to stay away from April, began to engage in further harassment. April informed the police and the district attorney's office. The district attorney tried to secure higher bail, but the judge refused citing that the purpose of bail was only to secure the defendant's presence for trial.

The next incident was fatal. April was gunned down in front of her home by Anthony, who fled the scene and then committed suicide.

Figure 20.29 DEFENSE WOUNDS. The victim suffered multiple defense wounds as she tried to fight off her attacker. (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant Alan Patton, Grand Prairie, Texas, Police Department. Photo by Evidence Technician Don Swanz.)

Figure 20.30 BLOOD ON FEET. This indicates that the victim had run through her own blood as she attempted to escape the killer. (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant Alan Patton, Grand

Prairie, Texas, Police Department. Photo by Evidence Technician Don Swanz.)

Figure 20.31 MULTIPLE STABBING. The victim had been stabbed 113 times in her chest and breast area. She also had numerous defense wounds on her hands and arms. The killer then manipulated her body to engage in sexual assault. Observe the blood dripping from her wounds, indicating that the body has been turned over. This is a classic "lust murder." (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant Alan Patton, Grand Prairie, Texas, Police Department. Photo by Evidence Technician Don Swanz.)

The Psychotic Personality Stalker

This type of stalker can be a male or a female who becomes obsessed and/or preoccupied with one or more systematized delusions. Many of these stalkers do in fact have a diagnosable mental disorder, i.e., paranoia, schizophrenia, bipolar (affective disorder–manic-depressive), etc. They suffer from a delusional fixation in that they become obsessed with the target. The target is usually a stranger. However, these types of stalkers have been known to target coworkers, neighbors, and even acquaintances. They attempt to contact the target, thus making him or her aware of their existence or presence through a series of activities such as telephone calls, letters, gifts, visits, and surveillance.

A subtype of the psychotic personality stalker is found in the diagnosis of erotomania. In the erotomanic type, "the central theme of an erotic delusion is that one is loved by another."2 In erotomania, the male or female stalker is a stranger who believes that the victim, usually someone famous or rich, is in love with him or her. The targets are usually persons of higher social status than the stalker, e.g., actors, actresses, or other public figures.

Case History — Delusional Fixation

Kathleen began receiving telephone calls from a male, who identified himself as a classmate. The phone calls became quite strange. The next contact was made by following her and then threatening to kill her boyfriend. The offender was finally arrested in possession of a semiautomatic weapon, a knife, and handcuffs. He was given psychiatric evaluation and released. Three months later, the same offender was caught watching Kathleen's parents' home. The police were notified and the offender was again arrested. Once again, he had a semiautomatic weapon and ammunition, a knife, a pair of handcuffs, and, this time, a police scanner. He confessed that he was going to kidnap her and bring her into the mountains. This time the offender got a year in a mental hospital. Kathleen obtained a restraining order.

However, 3 years later, the offender again entered her life. While she was walking down the beach, she saw him coming towards her with a .357 magnum. She managed to escape to her beach house, where she called the police. The offender was able to elude the police, but he called her house. The next day he was captured. However, because the gun did not have a firing pin, he was charged only with a misdemeanor.

The offender received 60 days for violation of the restraining order and was given 3 years' probation. Two years later the same offender began to communicate with her again. He staked out her house, set off her alarm system, and made several phone calls to the frightened young woman. He was finally arrested for five counts of violation of a restraining order. The maximum sentence he could have received was 5 years; instead, he got 4 months.

Five months later, the offender confronted Kathleen in the kitchen of her home. He had a knife and a gun. She kept the offender talking. While they were talking, the phone rang. It was Kathleen's mother, who realized that something was wrong. Kathleen's mom called the police. The police were waiting when the offender exited the house with Kathleen.

The offender was charged with several counts, including attempted kidnapping. His maximum sentence could have been 16 years. Instead, once again, the offender was able to plea-bargain it down to 8 years.

At the sentencing, Kathleen told the judge that the experts had advised her that this offender's fixation was not curable and that when he was released he would be back. The offender nodded his head in agreement.

Case History — Delusional Fixation and Erotomania

In May of 1991, the family of a 10-year-old girl whom I will refer to as Judy began to experience an unsettling series of events. At first, these events seemed cute and harmless. The family was finding gifts and notes on their front porch addressed to Judy. The family at first thought that it might be some little boy from Judy's fourth-grade class. However, the messages and the gifts became more and more bizarre as the stalker pursued his delusion that he and the 10-year-old Judy were destined for one another.

The family called the police several times due to the series of strange events. In one note the writer stated, "I saw you with the boy down the street, Judy, you slut." In another note, the writer referred to his fantasy of living on a desert island with Judy and that he had been watching Judy since she was 7 years old.

In October 1991, the family left for a vacation in order to get away from these strange events. While they were gone, someone broke into their house. When the family returned, they noticed that someone had gone through their telephone book and the page with the phone number of Judy's grandmother was open.

The next event involved a man calling the grandmother at 3:00 A.M. rambling on about how someday he and Judy would be in heaven together. The police were notified about the burglary and the phone calls. In addition, the family began to ask their neighbors for help. One of the neighbors recalled seeing a man staying at the home of a woman in the area. She recalled that the man had given her 12-year-old foster daughter a rosebush and when the man saw the girl playing with another neighborhood boy, he ripped the bush out of the ground.

The police were notified and questioned the woman with whom the man was staying. She denied that there was a man living with her. The police obtained a search warrant and found a 24-year-old man hiding upstairs. He was arrested for burglary.

While he was in jail, Judy began receiving signed letters from the offender. The courts decided to release the suspect with a warning and have him sent to a different town where he would be set up with a job. The family voiced their concern about the letters and their daughter's safety.

The court issued a restraining order against the defendant. His first day out, the family found a note from him on their front porch. The suspect was rearrested but continued to send "love" and "hate" letters to Judy. He would write about waiting 10 years for Judy. He also wrote that he wanted her "pure" and that he would not have sex with her until their honeymoon. This suspect has since been ordered by the courts to cease and desist.

However, the offender is due for release. In the words of the family, "He gains his freedom; we lose ours."

The important point to note in these two cases is that the offenders, despite the law enforcement intervention, continued to pursue their targets. These types of stalkers have a permanent and unshakable delusional system accompanied by a preservation of clear and orderly thinking. On the surface, they present as normal or sane when not pursuing their target. Others may even keep their delusions a secret and hide their fixation from family, friends, or coworkers.

It is not enough to arrest these types of offenders. They need to be vigorously prosecuted and jailed. New anti-stalker laws provide the basis for such prosecution.

Erotomania Involving Obsessed Fans and Stalkers

In 1989, an obsessed fan named Robert Bardo killed actress Rebecca Schaefer. Subsequent investigation revealed that Bardo had been communicating with and stalking Schaeffer for 2 years. Bardo had fantasized and dreamed of someday marrying the former star of the short-lived "My Sister Sam" TV series. He actually believed that there was a relationship between him and Rebecca Schaefer.

In 1982, actress Theresa Saldana survived a vicious knife attack by a stalker named Arthur Jackson, who believed that he had a "divine mission" to kill her and take her to heaven.

David Letterman, Johnny Carson, Michael J. Fox, and Olivia Newton-John are just a few of the famous celebrities who have been stalked by fanatical and obsessed fans. According to the experts on celebrity stalking, literally thousands of dangerous and obsessed fans stalk and are capable of violence.

Gavin deBecker of Los Angeles is the nation's acknowledged expert on star stalking and the assessment of threats to public figures. His firm, Gavin DeBecker, Inc., is located in Studio City, California (818) 505-0177 (http://www.gavindebecker.com/home.cfm). The firm maintains an extensive library of threat communications and provides computer analysis, monitoring of potential stalkers, and protection services for a number of celebrities and VIPs. DeBecker's firm has been selected to develop threat assessment systems for:

State police agencies protecting ten governors

25 University police departments

United States Supreme Court police

United States Marshals service

United States Capitol police Defense Intelligence Agency

Central Intelligence Agency

Gavin deBecker devised a computer program that analyzes "inappropriate communications" and rates the relative degree of hazard posed by their authors. The system focuses on what deBecker refers to as preincident indicators, or PINS. The MOSAIC system keeps track of these PINS, communications, and potential threats.

MOSAIC II, an updated version, has been adopted by the California State Police, who are responsible for providing security for state government and elected officials. The contact person and liaison for MOSAIC is available for consultation to other law enforcement agencies at (916) 322-3337.

Law Enforcement Response to Stalker Incidents

Traditionally, law enforcement and the criminal justice system have been ill equipped to deal with the stalker. The orders of protection and restraining orders meant to protect victims from unwanted contact have proven to be ineffective in stalker cases. In cases where stalkers communicate with their victims, the police are powerless to take any action unless the communications involve a threat.

Stalkers basically conduct a form of "psychological warfare" against their targets using methods which, ordinarily, do not in and by themselves necessitate or provide for police intervention. However, with all states now implementing anti-stalker legislation, the police and the criminal justice system have been provided with some legal ammunition and tools helpful to thwart the stalker.

In California, the first state to pass such legislation, the City of Los Angeles Police Department established an anti-stalker squad, officially called a Threat Management Unit. The unit was established due to the increasing number of complaints and stalking incidents involving celebrities and other prominent people within the L.A. area.

According to their studies, they have placed the stalkers into three categories: (1) 9.5% — erotomania: the stalker falsely believes that the target, usually someone famous or rich, is in love with the stalker; (2) 43% — love obsession: the stalker is a stranger to the target but is obsessed and mounts a campaign of harassment to make the target aware of the stalker's existence; and (3) 47% — simple obsession: the stalker, usually a male, knows the target as an ex-spouse, ex-lover, or former boss and begins a campaign of harassment.

Park Dietz, M.D., Ph.D., a forensic psychiatrist and nationally renowned consultant to law enforcement agencies, including the FBI, conducted the research and major study of the phenomenon of stalking public figures. According to Dr. Dietz,

We have disproved the myth that only threats count. Nearly everyone makes the mistake of assuming that unless there is a threat, you can safely ignore "nut mail," "kook calls," and weird visitors. This false assumption is the source of more misguided policy and decision-making than any other error in this field. (www.parkdietzassociates.com)

Dr. Dietz states that "all threats should be recorded, reported, and assessed — and so should all other frightening, weird, or troublesome communications and visits, whether they contain threats or not." He says,

The difficult decision is evaluating the offender in enough depth from his communications and witness accounts to know whether ultimately it will help or hurt the victim for law enforcement to interview the offender, arrest him for a misdemeanor, or otherwise make him aware that a report has been made. Where a solid felony arrest is possible, the victim is much more likely to gain meaningful protection.24

Dr. Dietz is president of Threat Assessment Group, Inc., located in Newport Beach, California. His organization can be accessed at (949) 723-2220. This organization was created to analyze threat communications and provide consultation to law enforcement agencies, corporations, and media figures. This group also analyzes and assesses dangerousness of personnel and/or consumers to prevent workplace violence and cope with threatened tampering or sabotage. They have trained more than 10,000 senior managers in over 500 companies, including many of the largest (www.taginc.com.)

The law enforcement response to these recommendations should be to encourage victims to make police reports of the incidents and have the victim document any harassment. These records can then serve as a basis for future actions by the police, prosecutors, courts, or psychiatrists who need such documentation to achieve maximum results from arrest or commitment.

Summary

Anti-stalker legislation affording felony charges provides law enforcement authorities with the statutory tools they need to protect victims from inappropriate and unwanted contact. However, many states classify stalking as a misdemeanor. Laws alone cannot protect victims from stalkers. The frightening reality of the stalker is in the complexity of his or her delusions, motivations, and objectives. Even the experts cannot agree on totally effective interventions.

The information provided in this section is intended to assist investigators by providing the psychopathology and symptomology of stalkers and their potential for violence as well as by furnishing information on viable resources available.

VICAP, Statewide and Regional Information Systems

For many years, police investigators working in different jurisdictions on similar cases have worked independently of one another. They did not have access to the information available elsewhere that could speed and enhance investigations in their jurisdiction. For example, although investigators knew that similar crimes were being committed in jurisdictions across the country, they sometimes had difficulty finding out what types of victims had been singled out, what methods of operation had been repeatedly used, or which suspects were under investigation.

In addition to lack of information, some violent crimes are so unusual, bizarre, and vicious that they are only rarely encountered by detectives working in smaller agencies. Serial violent criminals often transcend boundaries as they travel from city to city and state to state. The crimes of these highly transient criminals are sometimes never linked together.

In 1981, Pierce Brooks, a retired chief of police and former homicide commander of the Los Angeles Police Department, introduced a system designed to identify serial murderers. This system was called VICAP, an acronym for Violent Criminal Apprehension Program. It was designed to collect, collate, and analyze all aspects of an investigation using the latest computer and communications technology. This event represented an introduction to a new era.

In 1984, an interagency transfer of funds from the National Institute of Justice to the FBI formally established the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime. The VICAP concept of Pierce Brooks was conceptually merged within the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC) based at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia.

The main concept of the system was to bring together the fragmented law enforcement efforts from around the country so that they could be consolidated into one national resource center. These services were to be available to the entire law enforcement community. The Brooks concept represented a down-to-earth practical method of accessing information on a nationwide basis — a system which would provide agencies across the United States with the necessary information to conduct investigations.

According to the December 1986 issue of the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, "The goal of VICAP is to provide all law enforcement agencies reporting similar pattern violent crimes with the information necessary to initiate a coordinated multiagency investigation which will lead to the expeditious identification and apprehension of the offender responsible for the crimes." However, the immediate problem from an investigative perspective was that, unlike the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), this program did not allow local law enforcement agencies to access the information sent into the NCAVC files. Thus, an excellent concept, which originally provided for open access and good communication between agencies, was encumbered with the addition of an FBI conduit of analysis and research.

This recognized problem was supposed to be addressed by VICAP, which would act as a resource center and a national clearinghouse with the result that law enforcement efforts would be conducted in a coordinated fashion. The NCAVC is capable of comparing and analyzing every VICAP report submitted in the United States as well as providing local law enforcement with the identity of the individual investigator and department conducting that inquiry. However, accessing this information continues to be a problem because the request still has to go through the FBI.

The Violent Criminal Apprehension Program — VICAP

This system to identify serial murders was introduced to the FBI by Pierce Brooks, a retired chief of police and former homicide commander of the Los Angeles Police Department.

This VICAP system, an acronym for Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, was designed to collect, collate, and analyze all aspects of an investigation using the latest computer and communications technology. It provides a national clearinghouse for unsolved violent crimes. A staff of VICAP analysts and investigative case specialists review unsolved violent crimes such as homicides, rapes, child molestations, and arsons, which are submitted by law enforcement agencies on a VICAP form. The VICAP goal has been to centralize all active and unsolved homicide investigations in which mutilation, dismemberment, torture, or violent sexual trauma was involved.

Currently, cases which meet the following criteria are accepted by VICAP:

1. Solved or unsolved homicides or attempts, especially those that involve an abduction; are apparently random, motiveless, or sexually oriented; or are known or suspected to be part of a series

2. Missing persons, where the circumstances indicate a strong possibility of foul play and the victim is still missing

3. Unidentified dead bodies where the manner of death is known or suspected to be homicide

Profiling and Consultation Program

The NCAVC's Profiling and Consultation Program provides law enforcement agencies consultation with and opinions of experienced criminal personality profilers. It conducts careful and detailed analysis of violent crimes on a case-by-case basis in order to construct criminal personality profiles of the unknown offenders. Consultation is furnished on serial and exceptional cases and also includes case planning strategies, developing probable cause for search warrants, personality assessments, interviewing techniques, coaching prosecutors of violent criminals, and "on-site" major case analysis, consultation, and training, which falls under the training division of NCAVC.

The overall goal of the NCAVC is to develop a sophisticated and comprehensive knowledge-based computer system that will assist law enforcement. Eventually, detectives who are working on a murder, rape, arson, or sexual mutilation case will be able to obtain assistance through a nationwide computer network. The expertbased computer system under development will allow the NCAVC to

1. Eliminate useless investigative paths, which historically have proven fruitless in profiling and identifying the offender.

2. Preserve and recall knowledge of similar cases, criminal personality profiles, and research studies.

3. Display the hierarchy of complex criminal network problems from the general to specific level.

4. Develop and use decision rules, which accelerate computation time as well as allow the investigator to understand the problem better.

5. Receive advice and consultation from the expert system on new and existing cases based upon prior knowledge captured by the system.

6. Preserve information in an active form as a knowledge base, rather than as a mere passive listing of facts and figures.

7. Train novices to think as an experienced crime profiler would.

8. Create and preserve in an active environment a system that is not subject to human failings, will respond to constant streams of data, and can generalize large bodies of knowledge.

The Regional Organized Crime Information Center

The Regional Organized Crime Information Center (ROCIC) is one of six projects, called Regional Information Sharing Systems (RISS), which were formed to help local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies track and apprehend traveling criminals. ROCIC developed the HUMP system to serve as a foundation of a national clearinghouse on unsolved homicide/unidentified body and missing person cases in which the suspect, known or unknown, may travel and operate multijurisdictionally.

The information is submitted to ROCIC on a homicide/unidentified body and missing person (HUMP) report card and entered into a database. The ROCIC computer then analyzes and collates the information to identify any possible matches and trends on a national basis. Any case that shares certain key similarities with another case or cases in the database is further analyzed and each submitting agency is notified of the possible match so that its investigators can compare notes and exchange information about their respective cases.

Since its inception, the HUMP system has proven successful in identifying related and potentially related cases across the country and in providing new leads and a direct line of communication between investigators.

The advantage of the HUMP system over the VICAP system is that it allows for immediate access by telephone and requires only a 1-page report as opposed to a 15-page report for a VICAP analysis. In addition, ROCIC puts the inquiring investigator directly in touch with his counterpart on the related case.

Submission of Cases

The investigator simply fills out a HUMP card. In addition to the information on the card, ROCIC requests a short narrative on the back of the card or on a separate sheet of paper. ROCIC will accept telephone inquiries at 1-800-238-7985 or through

FAX at 1-800-366-3658. The Web site is at http://www.rocic.com. Mail the card to

Regional Organized Crime Information Center

545 Marriott Drive, Suite 850 Nashville, TN 37214

The Homicide Investigation and Tracking System

Washington State's Homicide Investigation and Tracking System (HITS) relies on law enforcement agencies voluntarily to submit information to HITS investigators on murders, attempted murders, missing persons cases in which foul play is suspected, unidentified persons believed to be murder victims, and predatory sex offenses.

Detectives conducting investigations need methods and tools that will help them do their jobs as effectively and efficiently as possible. Ready access to information about the crimes being investigated is one of their needs. This information is crucial in order to develop good leads and, in turn, to solve the case.

Dr. Robert D. Keppel, Ph.D., who started the program in Washington State, developed HITS. HITS is helping investigators work better by allowing them access via computer to a wide range of information about serious crimes and to resources that can help solve them. Basically, HITS is a murder and sexual assault investigation system that collects, collates, and analyzes the salient characteristics of all murders and predatory sexual offenses in the states of Washington and Oregon.

Ironically, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), the research arm of the Department of Justice, played a key role in the development of this project. This same organization encouraged Pierce Brooks in the 1970s to pursue VICAP, which was originally designed to provide local law enforcement access. Interestingly, HITS complements federal research and programs against violent crime because the system generates a VICAP report, which is sent to the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime. VICAP staff can then determine whether similar pattern characteristics exist among the individual cases in the VICAP system.

HITS provides three major services to law enforcement agencies. First, it supplies information related to a murder or predatory sexual assault case, including the following:

• Incidents with similar characteristics involving murder, attempted murder, suspected murder, or predatory sexual assault and persons missing as a result of suspected foul play

• Evidence, victimology, offender characteristics, offender's method of operation, associates, geographic location of the case, weapons, and vehicles

• Identification of known murderers and sex offenders living in a particular community

Second, HITS permits analysis of murder cases to identify:

• Factors that may help solve a particular murder case

• Possible links between a single victim, offender, or case and other incidents of violence

• Verification of statements provided by informants, offenders, or both, in which the information relating to an alleged murder is incomplete or questionable

Third, HITS provides investigators with the following resources:

• Names of experts who can assist with a murder or sexual assault investigation

• Advice and technical assistance on the various steps to be followed in a murder or sexual assault investigation

Prior to HITS' use in Washington State, the only way to obtain this type of crime information was through time-consuming, labor-intensive personal visits, interviews, telephone calls, teletypes, faxes, and letters. By filling out a simple form that takes less than 30 minutes, investigators save countless hours on the phone or on their feet searching for information that the HITS system locates for them. More importantly, HITS provides investigators with that important twoway communication.

HITS was founded on the premise that information plays a critical role in solving homicides. The key to solving crimes and making arrests is to understand how much and what kind of information is available and how to organize it to make it more accessible and useful. Because of the need to collect and collate violent crime information, HITS investigator/analysts work very closely with police detectives to provide assistance in their cases.

For further information on HITS, contact HITS Unit/Criminal Division, Washington State Attorney General's Office, 2000 Bank of California Center, 900 4th Avenue, Seattle, WA 98164 or call 1-800-345-2793.

In my opinion as an expert in homicide investigations, the most viable alternative to VICAP is a series of statewide or regional systems, which compile all serious crimes such as rape, murder, and gang-related crime into integrated databases that provide ready access to local law enforcement. In addition, any missing persons cases where the circumstances indicate that they are missing under suspicious circumstances, as well as information about unidentified bodies where the manner of death is known or suspected to be homicidal in nature, should be entered into the system.

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge the assistance and contributions of Kevin M. Dugan, D.D.S., and Arthur Goldman, D.D.S., for providing the technical information and for contributing the case histories in the section on bite marks.

I also wish to acknowledge the contribution of Lieutenant Timothy Byrnes. He holds a B.S. degree from St. John's University and an M.A. from John Jay College of Criminal Justice. He received his initial training in hypnosis at the Ethical Hypnosis Training Center in South Orange, New Jersey. In addition, Lt. Byrnes studied under Dr. Martin Reiser, who was director of Behavioral Science Services, Los Angeles Police Department, and is director of the Law Enforcement Hypnosis Institute, Inc. He is considered to be an expert in the field of hypnosis as used by law enforcement agencies.

I acknowledge the Peel Regional Police Department, Brampton, Ontario, Canada, specifically Inspector Rod Piukkala for providing this information relative to the procedures used to recover latent print evidence from a human body.

I wish to acknowledge the contribution of retired Detective Donald Sullivan, who has conducted over 500 forensic polygraph examinations and participated in many homicide investigations. He is a graduate of the National Training Center of Polygraph Science, vice president of the New York State Polygraph Association, research editor for the Journal of Polygraph Science, and lecturer and instructor in the field of polygraph examinations.

I wish to acknowledge the assistance and contribution of Detective Kathryn Artingstall, who is a recognized law enforcement authority on the subject of Munchausen syndrome by proxy. In addition, I wish to acknowledge retired Supervisory Special Agent Larry C. Brubaker of the Minneapolis, Minnesota, office of the FBI, who provided his insights and expertise in the area of MSBP, which are included in this section of the textbook.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Ronald Turco, a forensic psychiatrist, who assisted me with interpretations of behaviors as they apply to the dynamics of the stalker. Also, I wish to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Park, M.D., a psychiatrist and medical doctor who specializes in threat assessment and conducted the first survey into stalking. I also wish to acknowledge the contribution of Gavin deBecker, who is a recognized expert in the field, whose firm maintains an extensive library of threat communications and provides computer analysis, monitoring of potential stalkers, and protection services for a number of celebrities and VIPs who experience stalking incidents.

References

1. Reiser, M. Handbook of Investigative Hypnosis. Los Angeles, CA: Lehi Publishing Co., 1980, p. 30.

2. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV), Washington, D.C.: Author, 1994, pp. 474, 725, 297.

3. Raspe, R.E. The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen. New York: Peter Pauper, 1944.

4. Mercer, S.O. and J.D. Perdue. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: Social Work's Role." Social Work, 38(1), 74–81, 1993

5. Boros, S.J., and L.C. Brubaker. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, June, 1992.

6. Money, J. "Munchausen's Syndrome by Proxy: Update." Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11(4), 583–584, 1986.

7. Meadow, R. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: The Hinterland of Child Abuse." The Lancet, ii, 343–345, 1977.

8. Jones, J.G., H.L. Butler, B. Hamilton, J.D. Perdue, H.P. Stern, and R.C. Woody. "MunchausenSyndrome by Proxy." Child Abuse and Neglect, October, 33–40, 1986.

9. Artingstall, K. Practical Aspects of Munchausen by Proxy and Munchausen Syndrome Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1998, p. 3.

10. Burgess, A., T. Baker, C. Nahirny, and J. Rabun, Jr. "Newborn Kidnapping by CesareanSection." Journal of Forensic Science, July, 47(4), 2002.

11. Mosby's Medical & Nursing Dictionary, 2nd ed. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company, 1986, p. 217.

12. Nahirny, C. Telephone interview, April 19, 2005.

13. Willing, R. "Bizarre Cesarean Kidnappings of Unborn Babies Increase." USA Today, April 15, 2005.

14. "Infant Abductions Where Infant Cut from Mother's Womb." National Center for Missingand Exploited Children, Alexandria, VA.

15. Seikman, P., coroner, DuPage County, Illinois. Personal interview, April, 2005.

16. New York Post, December 30, 2003, p. 18.

17. New York Post, December 19, 2004, p. 5.

18. New York Post, December 20, 2004, p. 5.

19. Kinzer, S. "Baby Found in Kansas Thought to Be That of Slain Woman," New York Times, December 18, 2004.

20. Hannah, J. "Attacker 'Obsessed with Becoming Mom.'" The Cincinnati Enquirer, February 13, 2005.

21. New York Post, October 14, 2005.

22. CBS News, October 13 and 14, 2005.

23. Cooper, B., detective sergeant, Ravenna, Ohio, Police Department. Personal interview, April,2005.

24. Miller, N. and H. Nugent. Stalking Laws and Implementation Practices: A National Review for Policymakers and Practitioners (full report). Institute for Law and Justice Violence against Women On-Line Resources. http://www.vaw.umn.edu/documents/ilj_stalk/iljfinalrpt.html# id75833.

25. Dietz, P., M.D., Ph.D. Personal telephone interview and e-mail correspondence, June 14,2005.

Selected Reading

Bite-Mark Identification

Bowers, M. Forensic Dentistry: A Field Investigator's Handbook. New York: Academic Press, 2004.

Dorian, R.B.J. (Ed.). Bitemark Evidence. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2005.

Levine, L.J. "Forensic Odontology Today — A New Forensic Science." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, August, 1972.

Levine, L.J. "Bite Mark Evidence." Dental Clinics of North America, 21, 1977.

Stimson, P.G. and C. Metz. Forensic Dentistry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, LLC, 1997.

Sperber, N.D. "Bite Mark Evidence in Crimes against Persons." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, July, 1981.

Willems, G. (Ed.). Forensic Odontology. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2000.

Hypnosis

Reiser, M. I. (Ed.). Handbook of Investigative Hypnosis. Los Angeles: Lehi Publishing Co., 1980.

Latent Prints on Human Skin

Federal Bureau of Investigation. Police Instructor's Bulletin. Quantico, VA: Law Enforcement Training Division, 1976.

Fisher, B.J. Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. 7th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, LLC, 2004.

Lee, H.C., T. Palmbach, and M.T. Miller. Henry Lee's Crime Scene Handbook. New York: Academic Press, 2001.

Psycholinguistics

Foss, D.J. and D.T. Hakes. Psycholinguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1978.

Jakobovits, L. and M.S. Miron (Eds.), Readings in the Psychology of Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1967.

Miron, M.S. and J.E. Douglas. "Threat Analysis — The Psycholinguistic Approach." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, September, 1979.

Miron, M.S. and A.P. Goldstein. Hostage. New York: Pergamon Press, 1979.

Miron, M.S. and A. Pasquale. "Psycholinguistic Analyses of Coercion." Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2, 1978.

Psychics

Renier, N., with N. Lucks. A Mind for Murder: The Real-Life Files of a Psychic Investigator. New York, NY: Berkley Publishing Group, 2005.

Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1994.

Artingstall, K. "Officers Be Aware: Munchausen's Syndrome by Proxy." January, in press.

Artingstall, K. Practical Aspects of Munchausen by Proxy and Munchausen Syndrome Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1998.

Artingstall, K.A. "Munchausen Syndrome By Proxy." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, August, 5–10, 1995.

Artingstall K.A. and L. Brubaker. "Interview Techniques for MSBP-Related Investigations." Law and Order Magazine, 43(10), October, 1995.

Artingstall, K.A. and L. Brubaker. "Munchausen Syndrome-Related Offenses." Law and Order Magazine, 43(10), October, 1995.

Asher, R. "Munchausen's Syndrome." The Lancet I, 1951, 339–341.

Boros, S. and L.C. Brubaker. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: Case Accounts." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, June, 1992, 16–20.

Boros, S., J. Ophoven, R. Anderson, and L. Brubaker. "Munchausen's Syndrome by Proxy: A Profile of Medical Child Abuse." Children's Hospital of St. Paul, 1991.

Dateline — NBC. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." January 5, 1993.

DiMaio, D.J. and V.J. DiMaio. Forensic Pathology, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001. Chapter 12, "Neonaticide, Infanticide, and Child Homicide."

Geberth, V.J. "Munchausen Syndrome By Proxy (MSBP) — An Investigative Perspective." Law and Order Magazine, 42(8), August, 1994.

Geberth, V.J. Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic Techniques. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, LLC, 1996.

Guandolo, V. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: An Outpatient Challenge." Pediatrics, 75(3), March, 1985.

Hanon, K. "Child Abuse: Munchausen's Syndrome by Proxy." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, December, 1991.

Jones, J.G., H.L. Butler, B. Hamilton, J.D. Perdue, H.P. Stern, and R.C. Woody. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." Child Abuse and Neglect, October, 33–40, 1986.

Makar, A.F. and P.J. Squier. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: Father as a Perpetrator." Pediatrics, 85(3), 370–373, 1990.

Meadow, R. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: The Hinterland of Child Abuse." The Lancet II, 343–345, 1977.

Meadow, R. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." Archives of Disease in Childhood, 55, 731–732, 1980.

Meadow, R. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 57, 1982.

Meadow, R. "Neurological and Developmental Variants of Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 33(3), 270–272, 1991.

Meadow, R. "What Is, and What Is Not, 'Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy'?" Archives of Disease in Childhood, 72(6), 534–538, 1995.

Meadow, S.R. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." Medico-Legal Journal 63 (Pt 3): 89, 104, 1995.

Meadow, R. "Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy Abuse Perpetrated by Men." Archives of Disease in Childhood, 78(3), 210–216, 1998.

Money, J. "Munchausen's Syndrome by Proxy: Update." Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11(4), 583–584, 1986.

Raspe, R.E. The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen. New York: Peter Pauper, 1944.

Rosenberg, D.A. "Web of Deceit: A Literature Review of Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy." Child Abuse and Neglect, November, 561–563, 1987.

Stalkers

Anderson, S.C. "Antistalking Laws: Will They Curb the Erotomanic's Obsessive Pursuit?" Law & Psychology Review, 171, 184–185, 1993.

Belkna, J., B.S. Fisher, and F.T. Cullen. "The Development of a Comprehensive Measure of the Sexual Victimization of College Women." Violence against Women, 5(2), 185–214, 1999.

DeBecker, G. The Gift of Fear. New York: Dell Publishing, 1998.

Dietz, P., D. Matthews, D. Martell, T. Stewart, D. Hrouda, and J. Warren. "Threatening and Otherwise Inappropriate Letters Sent to Members of the United States Congress." Journal of Forensic Science, 36, 1445–1468, 1991.

Dietz, P., D. Matthews, C. Van Duyne, D. Martell, C. Parry, T. Stewart, J. Warren, and J. Crowder. "Threatening and Otherwise Inappropriate Letters Sent to Hollywood Celebrities." Journal of Forensic Science, 36, 185–209, 1991.

Geberth, V.J. "Stalkers." Law and Order Magazine, 40(10), October, 1992.

Hall, D.M. "The Victims of Stalking." In J.R. Meloy (Ed.), The Psychology of Stalking: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives. New York: Academic Press, 1998, pp. 113–137.

James, D. "Stalking and Psychosexual Obsession: Psychological Perspectives for Prevention, Policing and Treatment." Criminal Behaviour & Mental Health, 14(1), 68–69, 2004.

Newsweek, July 13, 1992, "Murderous Obsession." pp. 60–62.

U.S.A. Today, July 21, 1992, "Legislatures Tackling the Terror of Stalking." p. 9A.

VICAP, State-Wide and Regional Information Systems

Geberth, V.J. "Statewide and Regional Information Systems." Law and Order Magazine, 42(4), April, 1994.

Geberth, V.J. Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic Techniques, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1996.

Investigative Assessment: