Crime scene photographs are permanent and comprehensive pieces of evidence, which may be presented in a court of law to prove or disprove a fact in question. During the preliminary stage of homicide investigation, it is impossible to determine all of the things which may become relevant or important later. Therefore, it is imperative that photos be taken of the entire area and location where the crime took place, including any sites contiguous with the original crime.

Remember: You only get one shot at the homicide crime scene, so obtain as much information and documentation as possible.

The Value of Crime Scene Photographs

The old adage "one picture is worth a thousand words" is certainly appropriate when considering the value of crime scene photography. Although an investigator can verbally describe the homicide crime scene, photographs are able to present the same facts in a more accurate and easily understood manner. In addition, photography enables the investigator to stop the clock at any given instant and obtain a durable record, which remains long after other, more fragile evidence has dissipated. From an investigative point of view, crime scene photographs are practical and valuable tools which can:

1. Pictorially recreate the original crime scene

2. Refresh the investigator's memory and recall significant details which may have been overlooked or forgotten

3. Review particular aspects of the case

4. Provide a new slant on the case

5. Refresh the memory of witnesses

6. Illustrate details of a scene and the relationship of objects to the crime

7. Provide proof of injury or wound

8. Make comparisons

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9. Brief newly assigned investigators

10. Convey the crime scene and circumstances of the crime to a jury and serve as visible evidence

Crime Scene Photography and the Investigator

The investigator should have a basic understanding of photography and be able to operate some of the more simple photographic equipment available today. An easyto-use camera should be provided for use by the investigators at the homicide crime scene. Digital cameras as well as Instamatics and many of the Polaroid models are simple to operate and ideal for obtaining a record of the crime scene before any changes occur.

The type of camera recommended for crime scene photography is one which provides a large negative. Digital cameras are ideal for this purpose because the picture that is taken at 10 or 25% can be blown up to 100%. In addition, any camera which produces a larger negative and provides better clarity and resolution upon enlargement is preferable. Because of its versatility and relative simplicity, the 35mm camera is an excellent substitute for the large-negative types if they are not available. Investigators can be trained to operate the 35-mm camera in a short time.

Although investigators may be able to operate digital cameras, the 35-mm camera, or the Polaroid and Instamatic cameras, they should enlist the assistance of a professional with sophisticated equipment for the proper documentation of the homicide crime scene. Most departments maintain police photographers or specialized personnel to photograph crime scenes. In the absence of police personnel, civilian professionals can be employed. However, they should be advised of the legal requirements involved. The primary duty of the investigator will be to maintain the homicide crime scene in a condition that assures the integrity of the photos.

Admissibility of Photographic Evidence

The homicide investigator should have an understanding of the techniques and legal requirements necessary to ensure that the crime scene photos will be admissible in court. The basic premise involved in crime scene photography is that the photographs are a true representation of the homicide crime scene as it was at the time the incident was reported. Therefore, before a detailed examination of the crime scene is undertaken and before any items are moved or even touched, the crime scene must be photographed.

Remember: Do not draw any chalk lines or place markers in the crime scene until a photograph can be obtained depicting the scene as it was when the police first arrived.

Figure 6.1 THE CHALK FAIRY. Here you see the deceased lying in the position in which he was found. This crime scene photo may possibly be "inadmissible." While the first officers were securing the scene, someone I describe as a "chalk fairy" suddenly had the irresistible impulse to draw chalk lines around the body. You are not supposed to draw chalk lines around a body prior to the crime scene photographs. (From the author's files.)

The photographer should show the relationship of one object to another by moving from the general to the specific. Several photos of the general view should be taken at eye level in a clockwise direction or from each point of the compass (north, south, east, and west). The photographer should start at the outside perimeter of the scene and work toward the central scene. In addition, the photos of the body should indicate its position in relation to some landmark or permanent point of reference. The entire roll of film should be exposed or at least removed in each investigation. Never leave partially exposed film in the camera for another investigation, or the evidentiary value of the crime scene photographs may be jeopardized.

Do not add any chalk marks or markers to the scene before a long shot and closeup detail shot are obtained. Defense counsel can argue that the crime scene photographs are not an accurate representation of the scene as it was upon discovery of the crime because the police have added markers or chalk lines. If chalk lines or markers are needed to pinpoint the location of a small item, such as bloodstains, hair, or similar articles, photos should first be taken without the markers and then additional photos taken with the markers.

The number of photos taken is usually determined by the case. There is no limit on the number that can be taken. Practically speaking, it is always better to overshoot a scene than to miss some vital shots.

As each photo is taken, an accurate record should be made in the investigator's notebook. In addition, an entry should be made on an official photo log. Some agencies maintain logs or preprinted forms for use at crime scenes in order to assure the proper documentation of crime scene photographs. In any event, the following information should be recorded:

1. The date and time

2. The exact location

3. A brief description of the detail being photographed

4. The compass direction (north, south, east, or west)

5. The focus distance

6. The type of film and camera used

7. Any special equipment used

8. Light and weather conditions

9. The number of exposures

10. The identity of the photographer

The photographer should keep possession of the exposed film or digital disks for delivery to the laboratory for processing. After these photos are developed, the preceding information should be entered on the back of each photo and/or digital disk or on an appropriate form indicating each photo by number.

Figure 6.2 The CU-5 POLAROID CAMERA. 1 × 1 Camera. (Courtesy of the Polaroid Corporation.)

Figure 6.3 MACRO 5 SLR CAMERA POLAROID. (Courtesy of the Polaroid Corporation.)

The comprehensive log is necessary to assure the admissibility of the crime scene photos in court. The log includes the ten points mentioned previously, as well as the chain of custody from exposure to final disposition and storage of the film and negatives.

In addition, the police laboratory should keep an evidence log containing the following information:

1. The identity of the individual delivering the film for processing (name, rank, serial number, etc.)

2. Date and time the film was received for processing

3. Results of development

4. Number of prints requested

5. Location of original negatives or digital disks

6. Identity of the person receiving developed prints, digital disks, and/or negatives if there is no central storage

In the event that a commercial laboratory is used to process the film, the management should be requested to cooperate in adhering to the rules of evidence handling. This should include limiting the number of personnel handling the evidence film, as well as guaranteeing the security of the film and negatives. Needless to say, the commercial firm used to process any evidentiary material should be a reputable establishment.

Photographing the Homicide Crime Scene

Recording the homicide crime scene is a major facet of the investigation. It is extremely important that this be accomplished before anything is touched or moved at the scene. Also, it is important while photographing the scene to eliminate persons or items — including officers and police equipment — that do not belong in the scene.

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the photographer should attempt to show the relationships of objects to each other by shooting from the general to the specific, should take several photos of the general view, and should start at the perimeter and work toward the body. This is followed by close-up shots of the body and any significant pieces of physical or trace evidence. Important items of evidence, such as weapons, should be photographed as they appear at the scene.

Remember: No chalk marks or markers before you get a long shot and a close-up shot of the body and any other evidence.

Outdoor Locations

Outdoor locations should be photographed showing the central scene and the surrounding area in order to show the relationship of the scene to its surroundings and give the viewer a point of reference. These photos should be taken at eye level to show exactly how the scene appeared to the investigators or witnesses. If the homicide takes place in a large area or the surrounding street locations become significant, aerial photos are often helpful in providing a better perspective.

Indoor Locations

Indoor locations are more restricted than outdoor ones; however, the same principles apply. The photographer takes several overall shots in order to relate the scene to its surroundings. He then photographs the body, showing its position and relationship to objects in the room. Indoor locations may include several rooms in a house, an entire apartment or an individual room, the interior of a closet, an office, a hallway, a fire escape, a cellar, etc. The extent of the indoor photos depends on the facts of the case. The position of any windows and doors should be photographed, and exterior photos should be taken of locations — backyards, entranceways, neighboring residences, etc. — that show the premises from the outside.

The Body

Photos of the body should include a general and a close-up view and at least two full-body shots, one from each side. The photos must be taken in situ before the body is moved and should show any significant aspects of the crime as well as the body's position in the scene. Any defense wounds on the body should be photographed at the scene and later at autopsy.

Figure 6.4 PHOTOGRAPH OF BITE-MARK WOUND. Homicide case. Bite marks found on victim's arm. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.5 PHOTOGRAPH OF BITE-MARK WOUND WITH SCALE. Homicide case. Bite marks on victim's arm shown with scale. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.6 HANDS OF THE SUSPECT. Both hands of this suspect, who has been charged with homicide, show evidence of a violent struggle, as indicated by the arrows, and are actually part of the crime scene. These photos should be taken in black-and-white and color, with a marker. (From the author's files.)

It is recommended that additional identification photos of the deceased be taken at the morgue, prior to autopsy and after the body has been cleaned of any blood or grime. Sometimes the facial features will be so distorted that it is impossible to get an identification photo. In these cases, pictures should be taken of any scars or other markings, including tattoos, for later identification purposes.

Photographs should also be taken of any wounds or injuries that caused death or are significant to the investigation. These photos should be taken before and after the body has been cleaned in order to show the specific extent of injury and the character of each wound in exact detail. Photographs of any wounds should include a standard or metric ruler along with an I.D. label indicating case numbers and other pertinent information. In homicide cases where the victim has received wounds from bite marks, it is recommended that the photographs be taken with the Polaroid Spectra Close-up kit. Likewise, the CU-5 1 × 1 fingerprint camera produced by Polaroid is excellent for photographing fingerprints. These cameras will provide the necessary detail needed for later comparison and examination of the wound. Remember to use a ruler or scale to obtain an accurate measurement. (See Chapter 20 section, "Bite-Mark Identification.")

Suspects

It is important to note that crime scene photographs are not limited to places, objects, and dead bodies. Many times a suspect's appearance will indicate that he

Figure 6.7 POLAROID SPECTRA CLOSE-UP KIT. The Spectra 1200si camera comes with built-in autofocusing and auto lighting. (Courtesy of the Polaroid Corporation.)

or she has been in some sort of altercation. Suspects may have blood on their hands or bodies and blood on their clothes. They may have scratches or cuts on their hands or some superficial wounds on their faces or bodies. In addition, some visible material on the suspect may link him or her to the crime scene. Crime scene photographs must be taken before this valuable and important evidence is lost. However, in order to assure admissible crime scene photos, the suspect must be in custody, be under arrest, or agree to pose after having been advised of his or her constitutional rights.

Type of Film

I recommend that crime scene photographs be taken in color and in black-andwhite. Often an issue of color may arise that cannot be resolved by black-andwhite photos. I recall an investigation involving a homicide in a rooming house where the suspect had allegedly brought a blue sweatshirt into the room of the deceased. He had changed the shirt because blood from the victim was splattered all over it. The suspect then threw the shirt on a pile of rags after wiping up some of the blood and left the shirt behind. Later a witness was located who had observed the suspect wearing a blue sweatshirt before the crime was committed. The witness attempted to locate the sweatshirt in the black-and-white crime scene photos but failed to make an identification. Had we been using color film as well as black-and-white, we would have been able to point out the sweatshirt as a piece of evidence.

Photos taken in color give a much more realistic portrayal of the crime scene, which graphically depicts the events to the viewer. However, in certain instances, defense counsel has effectively precluded the submission of color prints into evidence because color was "too inflammatory." On other occasions, details shot in color are not clear enough for comparison purposes, e.g., latent fingerprint evidence. In any event, if the crime scene photographs are taken in black-and-white as well as in color, the investigator can choose between the two.

Figure 6.8 FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPH OF DEFENSE WOUND. This photograph is a macrophotograph of a defense wound from the victim's hand sustained as she attempted to fight off her assailant. (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant Alan Patton, Grand Prairie, Texas, Police Department.)

Recommended Crime Scene Photographs

There is no limit on the number or types of photos one may decide to take at any given crime scene. However, certain photographs should be taken in all homicide investigations. I recommend that the following crime scene photographs be obtained as a matter of routine:

Figure 6.9 PATTERN INJURY IN FIREARM CASE. (Left) Contact gunshot wound to skin demonstrating muzzle/magazine/front sight imprinting. (Right) Firearm responsible. (Courtesy of Westchester County Medical Examiner's Office. Photograph by W. Reid Lindsay, Westchester County Forensic Science Laboratory.)

Figure 6.10 PATTERN INJURY IN FIREARM CASE. (Left) Contact gunshot wound to skin demonstrating muzzle/slide/slide guide rod imprinting. (Right) Firearm responsible. (Courtesy of Westchester County Medical Examiner's Office. Photograph by W. Reid Lindsay, Westchester County Forensic Science Laboratory.)

Figure 6.11 CLOSE-UP BLOWBACK ON GUN BARREL. Death investigation suicide: closeup showing blood spatter blowback on revolver muzzle. (Courtesy of Detective Steve Shields, Klickitat County, Washington, Sheriff's Office.)

Figure 6.12 CLOSE-UP SHELL CASING. Homicide: close-up of .45-caliber shell casing showing unique impressions on face. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

1. The front entrance or walkway to the building or dwelling where the homicide took place or the external perimeter of an outdoor crime scene where the body lies

2. The entrance to the apartment or room where the deceased is discovered

3. Two full-body views (one from each side). (If the body has been removed, the original location where the body was discovered should be photographed.)

Figure 6.13 SEMIJACKET .45 Macro close-up of .45-caliber semijacket hollow point. Base view. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

4. Two photographs relating the body location to its general surroundings, from opposite and/or diagonal sides

5. Possible entrance and/or escape routes of the perpetrator or perpetrators to and from the crime scene

6. Areas where force was used for entry or exit

7. Area and close-up view of evidence in situ; in addition to the body, this would include bloodstains, weapons, shell casings, hairs, fibers, or any other physical or trace evidence

8. If a large outdoor area is involved, take aerial photographs to relate scene to surroundings

9. Photographs of the suspect, if in custody, with attention to any new wounds or injuries or presence of physical or trace evidence

10. Photographs of witnesses surreptitiously or as a matter of record, depending on the circumstances of the case

On completion of these preliminary crime scene photographs, the homicide supervisor should make it a standard practice to keep the photographer at the scene in the event that the crime scene search uncovers additional items or details which should be photographed. Many times after a body has been moved, additional evidence is discovered underneath, such as shell casings, spent rounds, or a weapon. These items should be photographed in situ before collection, with a reference in the investigator's notebook as to the original location and the discovery.

Figure 6.14 BLOODY RIDGE PATTERN. Homicide/sexual assault. Knife used in the attack. Bloody ridge pattern of suspect recovered from light switch. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.15 CLOSE-UP OF SUSPECT'S BLOODY FINGER. Homicide/sexual assault. Knife used in the attack. Suspect cut himself. Close-up photo of suspect's cut finger. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.16 PATENT PRINT IN BLOOD. Homicide/sexual assault. Suspect, who cut himself during the assault, left a bloody patent print at the crime scene. Close-up photo of patent print. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.17 LATENT PRINT ON SHOTGUN SHELL. Shotgun shell was dusted for prints. Latent print of suspect on shell. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.18 FORENSIC PHOTO OF FRACTURE MATCH. The knife recovered from the suspect's bedroom was matched to the tip of the blade, which was recovered from the victim's chest at autopsy. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.19 TIRE IMPRESSION. Close-up photograph of tire impression prior to placing a scale of measure into the picture to show size of original impression. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.20 TIRE IMPRESSION WITH SCALE. Death investigation. Tire tracks observed at the crime scene photographed with scale. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.21 PHOTO OF VICTIM'S BRA. This photo depicts a crime scene photograph of a rape victim's bra prior to the application of the alternate light source. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.22 PHOTO OF VICTIM'S BRA TAKEN WITH ALTERNATE LIGHT SOURCE. This photo was taken using alternate light source photography. The suspected semen is shown here fluorescing. The stains were swabbed and later determined to be semen. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.23 PHOTO OF BLOOD SPATTER. Blood spatter at homicide scene. Victim had been beaten with a barbell. This is a close-up of the blood spatter on the wall with orientation card and ruler. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.24 CLOSE-UP PHOTO OF BLOOD SPATTER. Blood spatter at homicide scene.

Same case as in Figure 6.23. This is a closer view of the blood spatter on the light switch with

ruler. (Courtesy of Detective Mark Czworniak, Chicago Police Department.)

Figure 6.25 AERIAL SHOT. It is a good procedure to obtain overall aerial views of the crime scene. (From author's files.)

Practical Application of Crime Scene Photography

In addition to the general application of crime scene photography to the overall investigative process, in some instances the camera can perform what the investigator cannot. For instance, in street homicides, especially in cities, there is always the possibility that the suspect or a witness to the fatal act may still be in the crowd of onlookers. I recommend that pictures be taken of these people surreptitiously while photographing the scene or directly before anyone in the crowd realizes that his or her presence is being documented. In addition, if you have videotape capability, tape the crowd and their reactions. This usually proves to be quite interesting and may help locate persons later for questioning.

I remember two specific incidents where the crime scene photos helped us to break a case. On one occasion, while on investigative patrol, we heard a radio broadcast of a possible homicide and a request for detectives to respond. Because we were close, we arrived as the crowd was still being directed behind hastily erected barriers. As the detective who was with me approached the scene, I stood back and began to take pictures of the surrounding crowd with my Instamatic camera. Later, we discovered that there was a witness to the shooting in the crowd. This witness never would have come forward had we not "captured" his presence on film.

In the other case, we were at the scene of a street homicide when we received information that one of the perpetrators was in the crowd. We could not verify this information or make an arrest because the source had made himself scarce and we did not have enough probable cause to make an arrest. I instructed the crime scene photographer to photograph the crowd surreptitiously while taking the crime scene photos. Later, when we showed these blown-up crowd shots to our witness, he positively identified the suspect as one of the participants.

Figure 6.26 GROUND ZERO AFTER COLLAPSE OF TOWERS. Photo depicts the total devastation of the area after the collapse of the Twin Towers, with police and emergency personnel gathered at ground zero during the early search and rescue operations. (Courtesy of retired Detective First Grade Kurtis Harris, NYPD Crime Scene Unit.)

The World Trade Center Attack

The World Trade Center (WTC) attacks of September 11, 2001 on New York City and America by radical Islamic fundamentalists who flew planes into the WTC and the Pentagon resulted in the largest crime scene the NYPD had ever encountered. This outrageous attack on innocent civilians thrust the resources of New York City into a crime scene investigation of unheralded proportions. The resources of the New York Police Department, the New York City Fire Department, the Port Authority Police Department, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the New York Office of the Chief Medical Examiner were confronted with the monumental task of recovering and identifying the human remains using every conceivable method available.

The Polaroid Macro 5 SLR Camera

The New York City Police Department's Crime Scene Unit was responsible for documenting evidence at the World Trade Center site, as well as the Fresh Kills Landfill and the New York City Medical Examiner's Office. As operations at the WTC shifted from rescue to recovery, the NYPD Crime Scene Unit began the painstaking process of sifting through the rubble for human remains and personal items.

I interviewed Detective First Grade (retired) Kurtis Harris relative to his experience with the Polaroid Macro 5 SLR camera during the crime scene process at ground zero. Detective Harris has managed approximately 1900 homicides,

Figure 6.27 GROUND ZERO CRIME SCENE. This photo depicts the enormity of the crime scene along with the devastation. NYPD Crime Scene Unit personnel searched through this rubble for any items and/or body parts that could be recovered, photographed, and documented. (Courtesy of retired Detective First Grade Kurtis Harris, NYPD Crime Scene Unit.)

Figure 6.28 MACRO 5 SLR CAMERA POLAROID USED AT GROUND ZERO. (Courtesy of retired Detective First Grade Kurtis Harris, NYPD Crime Scene Unit.)

suspicious deaths, and other major crime investigations during his 20-year career with the New York City Police Department, 13 years of which he was assigned to the Crime Scene Unit. He is a board-certified senior crime scene analyst and former faculty member of the NYPD Detective Bureau's Advanced Training Unit. Some of the information below was provided by Detective Harris.1

The Polaroid Macro 5 SLR-1200 is an all-inclusive camera that permits photographing elements of artifacts for class and individual characteristics. Originally used in the medical field to assist practitioners in identifying patient conditions photographically, the camera was used extensively during the World Trade Center attack investigation and victim identification. The Polaroid Macro 5 SLR-1200 became the "workhorse," not only of the NYPD's Crime Scene Unit but also of the various agencies involved in the WTC investigation. The camera aided them in the identification process subsequent to other occurrences requiring the immediate and precise documentation of artifacts and human remains left at a crime scene.

The pulverizing effect of the collapse of the two towers reduced once whole bodies into mounds of dust-covered flesh and bone. The identification process was initiated at "ground zero" with use of a grid system established with global positioning. The remains were given coordinates, removed to a designated area on site for gross examination, and then transported to 520 First Avenue, the office of the chief medical examiner. At this stage of the identification process, forensic anthropologists performed triage of the remains and artifacts and disseminated the material to the various forensic disciplines present at the morgue. For example, any dentition separated from the victim was forwarded to on-site odontologists for xrays and comparative analysis with known dental records.

Camera work at the triage stage was essential in documenting the many thousands of pieces of jewelry and artifactual material that offered individual characteristics, which aided in identification. The Polaroid Macro 5 SLR-1200 employs the use of five lenses, which reproduce images at 0.2× (20%), 0.4× (40%), 1× (1:1), 2× (200%), and 3× (300%) magnification. Two enclosed electronic flash units provide an even dispersion of light across the subject matter and microprocessors automatically choose appropriate aperture settings (fixed speed of 1/50 second). The unit also utilizes a dual-light range finder that facilitates remote focal distance from subject to lens, thus allowing crisp and focused photographs without the operator viewing the subject material through the viewfinder. Other features of the camera allow the photographer latitude in recording class characteristics while in an adverse environment. The following is a table of the camera's specifications:

Magnifications Lens-to-Subject Distance Lens Focal Length Effective Lens Aperture Depth of Field

0.2× (20%) Macro 5 52 in./132 cm 221 mm F/20 8.8 in./22 cm

0.4× (40%) Macro 5 26 in./66 cm 188 mm F/34 3.8 in./10 cm

1× (1:1 or 100%) 9.9 in./25 cm 128 mm F/47 0.86 in./2.2 cm

2× (200%) 4.8 in./12 cm 85.4 mm F/67 0.31 in./0.8 cm

3× (300%) 3.1 in./8 cm 64 mm F/100 0.20 in./0.5 cm

Source: Polaroid Company.

Figure 6.29 and Figure 6.30 illustrate the probative value of the camera's worth in recording the inscription on the underside of a ring. The inscription (23rd Psalm) is clear in the photograph and will ultimately aid in the identification of its owner. The photograph was taken at the maximum magnification provided by the camera (3× [300%]) and the image is accompanied with a suitable scale for reference. The reflective surface of the ring is not a factor in washing out the image while the

Figure 6.29 RING RECOVERED FROM GROUND ZERO. The photograph was taken at the maximum magnification provided by the camera (3× [300%]) and the image is accompanied with a suitable scale for reference. (Courtesy of retired Detective First Grade Kurtis Harris, NYPD Crime Scene Unit.)

Figure 6.30 INSCRIPTION INSIDE RING.

This photograph illustrates the probative value of the camera's worth in recording the inscription on the underside of a ring. The inscription (23rd Psalm) is clear in the photograph and will ultimately aid in the identification of its owner. (Courtesy of retired Detective First Grade Kurtis Harris, NYPD, Crime Scene Unit.)

Figure 6.32 PANOSCAN CAMERA. PanosFigure 6.31 PANOSCAN CAMERA. (Cour- can setup with camera and processor. (Courtesy of Mr. Casey Coss, C.F.O., Panoscan, Inc., tesy of Mr. Casey Coss, C.F.O., Panoscan, Inc., www.panoscan.com.) www.panoscan.com.)

camera's flash mechanisms were employed. Depth of field (the zone of acceptable sharpness) is suitably clear for viewing without additional aids.

The Panoscan MK-3 Digital Panoramic Camera System

The Panoscan MK-3 panoramic camera system creates ultrahigh-resolution 360° images, which allow law enforcement personnel to examine crime scenes in extraordinary detail months or even years later, and high-resolution, photo-realistic mapping of structures and open spaces for courtroom presentations and strategic and tactical planning. Panoscan images can also be used in a variety of law enforcement training applications.

Law Enforcement Applications

• Panoscan's ultrahigh resolution panoramic images document the crime scene in 360 by 180°, so crime scenes can be investigated months or even years later.

• Tactical planning maps create virtual reality "maps" of public places including schools, government buildings, and hostile urban environments for tactical planning and response.

Figure 6.33 PANOSCAN CARRYING CASE. (Courtesy of Mr. Casey Coss, C.F.O., Panoscan, Inc., www.panoscan.com.)

• Courtroom presentations create detailed virtual tours of entire crime scenes and the relationship of evidence to the surrounding area.

• Multimedia training Panoscan images can be used for a variety of law enforcement training applications.

Examples

In the mock crime scene in Figure 6.34, a typical hotel room was scanned under existing lighting conditions. Notice how the small inset picture shows the extreme detail level captured in this image. The label on the prescription bottle is easily read. This is made possible by Panoscan's extraordinary resolution; no enhancement is needed. In this case, over 580 million pixels were captured, allowing the viewer to zoom in for a detailed examination of every part of the image.

Crime scenes captured in this way can be studied in detail to reveal new clues. Investigators can revisit the scene long after it has changed. Unlike traditional closeup photography, panoramic imaging shows the spatial relationship between items, which provides a view of the whole scene. In an actual case in Kern County, California, a matchbook, among other debris, was missed in the initial examination of the homicide scene. It was found in the Panoscan image and this new piece of evidence led to the conviction of the suspect.

In the following example, a school campus was captured using the Panoscan camera to document the view from inside each classroom. This kind of imaging can be stored on a CD-ROM or a secure file server for later review. This virtual mapping allows the viewer to look around each room and study vital tactical details, such as which way a door may open or where a storage closet may be located, as well as the placement of furniture. In the event of an emergency such as a fire or hostage situation, officials can use this information to plan their tactical response.

This school, with over 70 room views, was captured by one photographer in a single day. The images were then converted to an interactive QuickTime VR presentation, which allows the user, by simply rolling the mouse cursor over any room,

Figure 6.34 PANOSCAN PHOTO SEQUENCE. Indicates Panoscan's ability to focus in on a particular item within the crime scene. (Courtesy of Mr. Casey Coss, C.F.O., Panoscan, Inc., www.panoscan.com.)

to make a virtual "leap" into that room. Once inside, the user can pan tilt and zoom the view of the selected room using the mouse. To view another room, the user hits the "back" button or simply clicks on the roof to jump back to the aerial map. The map could also be a floor plan diagram.

Panoscan's rapid workflow allowed this entire school example to be created in less than 2 days. Images from the MK-3 come out of the camera already "stitched"

Figure 6.35 PANOSCAN PHOTO SEQUENCE VIRTUAL MAPPING. The images in this sequence were converted to an interactive QuickTime VR presentation, which allows the user, by simply rolling the mouse cursor over any room, to make a virtual "leap" into that room. (Courtesy of Mr. Casey Coss, C.F.O., Panoscan, Inc., www.panoscan.com.)

and ready to use. Panoscan's superior dynamic range and resolution ensure that the viewer always gets to see all of the details. Even under poor lighting conditions, the camera is able to capture scenes with extraordinary detail and clarity.

These interactive tactical VR presentations can also be embedded into a secured Web page or burned onto a CD ROM for distribution. There is no limit to the number of rooms, spaces, or buildings that can be documented in this way. Additional detailed information such as text, sound, and even video footage can be embedded into the images as well.

Company information. Panoscan Inc. manufactures and markets ultrahigh-resolution, digital, panoramic camera systems. The company was founded in 1998, in Los Angeles, California, with the introduction of the MK-1 panoramic camera system. This breakthrough in panoramic capture was the first to create full panoramas in a single digital file. Unlike previous digital solutions, images created by the Mark 1 required no stitching, thus saving time and allowing for much higher resolution. After 6 years in business, Panoscan's images are used by every major auto manufacturer for car interiors; the U.S. Air Force for tactical planning; five law enforcement agencies, including the Los Angeles County Coroner; Victoria, Australia Anti Terrorism Unit; and the San Bernardo and Kern Counties Sheriffs' Departments. The images are used in training and educational applications, emergency preparedness, tourism, and a variety of police and military applications.

Contact persons. Mr. Casey Coss, C.F.O., or Mr. Ted Chavalas, (818) 908-4641; fax (818) 783-9539; www.panoscan.com.

Videotaping

The use of videotape is becoming increasingly popular and has been employed with excellent results in the investigation of homicide. The technical expertise involved is certainly within the ability of the homicide investigator or crime scene technician and videotaping should be considered a viable adjunct to other methods employed in the recording of crime scenes.

Advantages of Videotaping

Videotaping has the following advantages:

1. It provides a more realistic and graphic portrayal of the homicide crime scene.

2. It tends to capture the atmosphere of the scene, especially when the homicide detective is narrating the events as they are being depicted on film.

3. It can be used to record suspects' statements. This is especially beneficial if suspects later change their stories or deny having made confessions to police. It should be noted that defendants must be given their Miranda rights on the video prior to videotaping their statements. In addition, a clock visible in the background should be employed to record the total time of the interview.

4. It can be used to record a dying declaration. Often a victim under treatment in a hospital may be diagnosed as critically injured and likely to die. If the victim is coherent, the investigator should attempt to elicit a dying declaration. The use of videotape enhances and permanently documents this legal procedure.

5. It can be used to record a line-up. This recording can depict to the jury the exact position of the defendant and can be shown to additional witnesses in an attempt to identify suspects.

6. A video camcorder records 30 frames of video tape per second. This complements the human eyes' persistence of vision, constantly keeping the viewer informed as to direction and perspective even though the lens may be moving and its field of view is continually recording differing angles of view. An entire crime scene can be scanned and captured in great detail. In addition, items that may have been missed originally will still be preserved on tape.

Purpose of Videotaping the Crime Scene

1. Preserving the entire event for future review of the scene by investigators, medical examiners, serologists, and others for

Identification of evidence

Conditions at the time of discovery

Any subsequent questions regarding the scene

Refreshing investigator's and witnesses' memories Comparison with other unsolved crimes

Blood stains, direction of fall, location, etc.

Location of windows, doors, rooms, rugs, furniture, etc. Lighting conditions (night and day) (interior and exterior) Vegetation, outdoor landmarks, trees, lakes, etc.

Weather conditions

Outdoor crime scenes, showing crowds for identification

2. Presentation of entire or edited relevant portions for presentations to grand jury, judge, juries, etc. to

Corroborate a confession

Contradict an exculpatory statement or defense witness

Depict the reality of death

Prove lines of sight, lighting, spacing, passage

There are different methods of videotaping a crime scene. Some agencies utilize a team method whereby one investigator acts as the technician while the other describes or narrates the events as they are filmed. However, personnel at the scene should be cautioned to remain quiet during this taping because conversation may prove distracting or embarrassing. I recall a case that was being videotaped that involved a brutal sex act and murder. The suspect was found lying on top of the deceased female by an employee of the building. The suspect had been sodomizing the dead woman when he was "interrupted." The condition of the victim and the act that had been perpetrated were so heinous that officers at the scene were quite descriptive in their opinions of what should be done to the "perp." The suspect eventually pleaded guilty and the videotape was never presented. Needless to say, however, if the tape had ever been played in court, the defense counsel would have had a field day depicting the police as crude and vindictive, not to mention unprofessional.

It has been my experience that audio and crime scene narration during the initial taping can become problematic because initial observations and comments may be erroneous (these are discoverable — the defense attorney will be able to supoena these materials because he is entitled to all documents pertaining to the investigation). Furthermore, incidents such as the one I just cited are all too common. An open microphone may pick up idle talk and conjecture, not to mention some of the unacceptable commentary that takes place at crime scenes. I recommend that only a beginning and ending statement containing the technician's name, the time, date, and location be recorded for evidential purposes.

Recommended Procedure

The best method is to have one technician with a closed microphone shoot the scene at a normal angle, as would be seen with the human eye. The distances portrayed in the scene are then the same as if you were standing where the camera was located. Videotaping of crime scenes should ideally be accomplished before any forensic work and before changes to the crime scene have been made by police, detectives, and crime scene technicians.

In order to provide the reader with the most effective and efficient manner of videotaping crime scenes, I consulted with Mr. Chris Longueira, who was the chief technician of the Bronx District Attorney's Video Unit. I had the pleasure of working very closely with him when I was a supervisor in homicide. I was impressed with his expertise and the value of videotaping and encouraged its use whenever I had the opportunity. Mr. Longueira, who has been videotaping crime scenes as well as defendant statements since 1978, is considered an expert on the use of videotape within the criminal justice system.

According to Mr. Longueira, "The technician should attempt to keep video continuity so that the viewer[s] will always know where they are in the scene and from what perspective they are viewing the subject in the scene by utilizing consistent reference points." He also stated that

Whenever the recordist must change position, which is frequently unavoidable, he/she should make a note of the last frame of video tape recorded and use that as a reference even though the angle and distance may have changed somewhat. Be sure to start recording and hold until the viewer can comprehend where the recordist has moved to. You must always try to avoid the 180° jump cut.2

The videotaping should begin at the perimeter of the scene or outside the location and progress toward the central scene and the body. Long shots as well as close-ups should be taken in a slow and systematic manner. This is accomplished by first "panning" the entire area and then focusing or "zooming" in on the central scene and corpse. In order to document the location or position of the body, the technician should photograph any landmarks or permanent structures as points of reference to give a perspective on the position of the body.

The same principle used in crime scene photographs applies to videotaping. In order for the videotape to be admitted into evidence, the scene must be intact and not have been changed. The scene should first be filmed without any markers or scales and then filmed with the necessary visual aids. In addition, the videotape must be in its original condition, without any erasures or editing, to be admissible as evidence. The following recommended protocol was designed and provided by Mr. Longueira.

Videotape Protocol3

Arrival at Scene

Obtain the preliminary information from the first personnel on the scene regarding the occurrence, any observations by witnesses who have entered the crime scene, any EMS activities, etc. Check with the investigators, medical examiners, etc. regarding what they think.

At this point, the technician should quickly take a look at the scene for such things as:

A. Location

1. Layout of the apartment

2. The room the body is in and other rooms where evidence was found

3. Areas you should be careful not to disturb such as blood on the floorsor walls, small pieces of evidence that could easily be kicked or stepped on. Use your elbows to open doors instead of imparting your finger or hand prints in the crime scene.

B. Body

1. Size of the room in which it was found

2. Whether face up or face down and whether it is accessible and fromwhat angles

3. The wounds: how many, where, and what kind

Conduct a quick review of these areas after you have obtained the information from the scene investigators. Ask about possible entry and exit ways, windows, whether they were forced. Ascertain what evidence has been recovered or located, such as prints, whether they appear to be hand or foot, and the location of any blood splatterings on walls or floors possibly indicating where the victim was standing or facing when he or she was murdered. Ask about adjoining rooms or areas pertinent to the crime. Did this final scene originate from another apartment (more likely in an urban settings)?

Once you have taken this preliminary information, you are ready to start taping. Keep a mental list of all this information and pertinent locations as you proceed to tape the scene. The best method, according to Mr. Longueira, is to let your shots run as long as possible. You can be redundant as long as each frame is continually depicting new information to the viewer. However, being overly redundant could make the viewer uneasy. Try to walk through the entire scene in one take. This allows persons who view the tape an uninterrupted orientation.

Taping Protocol

Begin taping by putting an introduction on the tape: technician's name, date, time, and location.

Turn off the audio. You do not want to have an ongoing commentary regarding the scene. Opinions and perspectives change.

Remember: The tape is subject to discovery. You do not want to pick up stray comments or information on the open microphone. Later, in court, the witness can narrate.

Begin taping from a logical beginning point — i.e., front door or nearest identifiable landmark or street sign if outdoors.

Orient your camera work so that viewers will know where you are at a given point, e.g., pan the room or hallway before being specific. Go slowly and use long, steady shots.

Shoot the scene from a normal angle as the eye would perceive it without wide-angle or telescopic distortion.

Note: Normal angle. The rule for 35-mm photography is that the diagonal measurement of a 35-mm aspect ratio is 50 mm or a 50-mm lens. (This is why most 35-mm cameras are sold with a 40- to 50-mm lens as standard.) The recorder wants to capture the scene as he would with the naked eye.

When you do zoom in, zoom back out to the same spot. This will provide the viewer continuity and perspective and allow editing of zoom portions. Never zoom without purpose. The single most overused and abused feature of the novice recorder is the zoom.

When zooming in, sharpen focus and hold.

Do not do each item on a separate zoom (e.g., in and out on each bullet wound). A much more effective tape will be procured when you zoom to a series of small items or wounds and pan across them slowly and then zoom out very slowly.

Shoot several angles of the body, room, etc. Try to shoot the body from adjoining rooms if possible or down long hallways. This provides the possible lines of sight that still photos cannot depict.

Tape all doors, locks, windows, closets, kitchen, dining facilities, medicine cabinets, etc.

Shoot all lines of sight at location, e.g., top of stairs to downstairs front door and in reverse.

Tape the body at the end of the scene documentation. After the body has been turned over, reshoot those areas which were hidden from view to document any further wounds or findings.

Shoot hands, feet, eyes, clothes, jewelry, tattoos, gold teeth, scars, etc.

Shoot all bloodstains, weapons, shell casings, hair, fibers, and trace evidence.

Option: shoot the recovery and collection of evidence.

Upon completion of the taping, close with your name and time.

Label and number tape and log as evidence; include weather conditions, lighting, etc.

Remember: Videotaping does not replace good crime scene photographs. It should be used in conjunction with the photos.

Videotaping Suspect Statements

When videotaping suspect statements, it is important to record the suspect's demeanor during the interview. Frequently, a suspect will involuntarily demonstrate some sort of body language that will indicate nervousness or uneasiness at certain questions. This tape can later be played back for evaluation and analysis by the investigator. A review of the tape and the suspect's reactions may form the basis for a different approach or a concentration on certain points of the interrogation.

It should be noted that there is a difference of opinion on whether suspects' statements should be videotaped. Certain experts feel that the implementation of such a system may create additional problems in the prosecution, if all statements are not taped, by providing the defense counsel with ammunition to challenge those statements. For example, if a confession or statement is not videotaped, for any number of legitimate reasons, does this mean the agency was attempting to hide something? Because of this, the decision to videotape statements must be given careful consideration.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the application of photography to the documentation of the homicide crime scene is certainly within the capability of the average investigator. Photography is an important element of professional law enforcement that provides an objective, comprehensive, and impartial recreation of the crime scene as it was upon discovery. It is up to the investigators to provide this vital ingredient by taking the photos or by preserving the scene until the arrival of police photographers.

The use of videotape to enhance this documentation is an excellent medium because many people who have VCRs and camcorders in their homes are aware of videos and videotaping and, therefore, can relate to this documentation process.

References

1. Harris, K., Detective First Grade (ret.). Personal interview, August 2004.

2. Longueira, C. Personal interview, January 1996.

3. Geberth, V.J. Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic Techniques. 3rd ed. CRC Press, 1996.

Selected Reading

Gardner, R.M. Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2005.

Geberth, V.J. "The Use of Videotape in Homicide Investigations." Law and Order Magazine, 44(3), 1996.

James, S.H., P.E. Kish, and T.P. Sutton. Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: Theory and Practice. Boca Raton: FL: CRC Press, 2005.

Redsicker, D.R. The Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001.